-NRLF 


D37 


GUYOT'S 

SLATED  MAP  DRAWING  CAEDS, 

DRAWN  BY  E.  SANDOZ,  UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF 


T        f    " 

iiH'          REESE    LIBRARY 

--          I  OF   THK 

UNIVERSITY   OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Received.. 
Accessions  yV0._£<?_  A?.Zd__       Shelf  No.. 


I    «        OCEANIA. 

1    «        UNITED  STATES  (double  size). 

These  "  SLATED  MAP  DRAWING  CARDS  "  exhibit  merely  the 
latitudes  and  longitudes,  and  are  printed  on  a  newly  invented 
smooth  silicious  suface,  from  which  slate-pencil  marks  can  be 
erased  with  the  same  facility  as  from  an  ordinary  slate,  thus 
enabling  the  pupil  to  redraw  on  each  Map  hundreds  of  times, 
until  an  accurate  and  lasting  knowledge  is  obtained  of  the 
Coast  Lines,  Boundaries,  Rivers,  Mountains,  Cities,  &c. 

For  the  complete  set,  without  portfolios,     -     90  cts. 
For  any  single  Map  of  the  set,    -     •     -    *    12  cts. 

CHARLES  SORIBNER, 

GKAND  STREET,  New  York. 


|2f!MSample  sent  by  mail,  prepaid,  on  receipt  of  60  cents. 


]  Education  of 
the  Senses. 


A  MANUAL 


op 


ELEMENTARY  INSTRUCTION, 


USE  OF  PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE  SCHOOLS  AND 
NORMAL  CLASSES; 


CONTAINING  A   GRADUATED   COURSE   OP 


OBJECT   LESSONS 


TRAINING  THE  SENSES  AND  DEVELOPING  THE  FACULTIES  OF 
CHILDREN. 


BY  E.  A.  SHELDON, 

SUPERINTENDENT    OF    SCHOOLS,     OSWEGO,    N.   Y.  ; 


YORK : 
CHARLES   SCRJBNER,   124   GRAND   STREET. 

1862. 


Entered,  according  to  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1862,  by 
CHARLES  SCRIBNER, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern  District 
of  New  York. 


JOHN  F.  TROW, 

PRINTER, STEREOTYPED,  AND  ELECTROTYPER, 

48  &  50  Greene  Street, 
New  York. 


PKEFACE. 


FOR  many  years  there  has  been  a  growing  convic- 
tion in  the  minds  of  the  thinking  men  of  this  country, 
that  our  methods  of  primary  instruction  are  very  defec- 
tive, because  they  are  not  properly  adapted  either  to  the 
mental,  moral,  or  physical  conditions  of  childhood.  But 
little  reference  has  hitherto  been  had  to  any  natural  order 
in  the  development  of  the  faculties,  or  to  the  many  pe- 
culiar characteristics  of  children.  Memory,  by  no  means 
the  most  important  of  the  infant  faculties,  and  reason, 
at  this  age  but  faintly  developed,  have  been  severely 
taxed,  while  but  little  direct  systematic  effort  has  been 
made  to  awaken  and  quicken  the  perceptive  faculties, 
which  are  the  first  to  develop  themselves,  and  upon  the 
proper  cultivation  of  which  we  must  depend  for  success 
in  all  our  future  educational  processes.  Even  in  schools 
where  better  views  have  prevailed,  the  want  of  some  sys- 
tematic exercises,  with  proper  apparatus  and  facilities  for 
putting  them  into  practice,  has  been  strongly  felt. 

The  design  of  this  work  is  to  meet  this  demand : 
to  present  a  definite  course  of  elementary  instruction 
adapted  to  philosophic  views  of  the  "  laws  of  childhood." 

We  do  not  claim  for  it  originality,  either  in  thought 
or  method.  It  is  now  a  full  half  century  since  that  dis- 
tinguished educational  reformer,  Pestalozzi,  to  a  great 


6  PREFACE. 

extent  gave  expression  and  embodiment  to  the  principles 
and  methods  herein  contained. 

Important  modifications  have  however  been  made ; 
many  errors  both  in  principles  and  practice  have  been 
eradicated,  and  we  are  now  able  to  bring  to  bear  the  sug- 
gestions of  some  of  the  most  distinguished  educators  in 
Europe,  based  upon  many  years  of  careful  study  and  ex- 
periment. 

The  work  upon  which  this  is  founded,  and  from  which, 
with  the  kind  consent  of  its  authoress,  Miss  Elizabeth 
Mayo,  we  have  largely  drawn,  is,  as  stated  in  her  preface, 
"  A  Manual,  in  two  volumes,  containing  the  essential 
portions  of  the  five  in  which  alone  such  help  has  hitherto 
been  attainable  ;  and  this,  too,  with  the  addition  of  much 
valuable  matter  which  is  now  published  for  the  first 
time." 

This  work,  entitled  "  Manual  of  Elementary  Instruc- 
tion," has  been  compiled  within  the  past  year,  and 
brings  down  to  us  the  light  and  experience  of  the  best 
schools  of  Europe,  where  these  methods  have  been  longest 
and  most  thoroughly  tested. 

She  further  says,  "The  whole  work  has  been  care- 
fully reconstructed  on  a  plan  which  presents  principles 
and  practice  in  immediate  connection,  in  order  to  illus- 
trate their  mutual  dependence ;  all  details  of  practice 
being  exhibited  as  flowing  naturally  from  the  first  truths 
on  which  they  are  founded." 

While  the  general  plan  of  this  work  has  been  followed, 
and  some  of  the  lessons  adopted  with  slight  changes,  a 
large  proportion  of  original  matter  has  been  added,  and 
the  whole  arranged  with  special  reference  to  the  wants 
of  our  American  schools. 

The  Lessons  on  Objects,  Color,  Moral  Instruction, 
Lessons  on  Animals,  and  the  Introduction  have  been 
made  up  from  the  original  manuscripts  of  Miss  M.  E. 


PREFACE.  7 

M.  Jones,  with  such  exceptions  as  are  indicated,  and  the 
whole  arranged  by  her.  For  more  than  fifteen  years  this 
lady  was  engaged  in  training  teachers  in  these  methods 
in  the  Home  and  Colonial  Training  Institution,  London, 
and  has  been  connected  with  the  schools  of  this  country 
sufficiently  long  to  understand  something  of  their  wants. 

Prof.  Hermann  Krusi*  is  the  author  of  the  Lessons 
on  Form  and  Inventive  Drawing.  He  has  also  rewritten 
the  fifth  and  sixth  steps  in  Number.  His  suggestions  on 
many  other  points  have  been  very  valuable.  We  can  but 
congratulate  ourselves  and  those  engaged  in  primary  in- 
struction for  this  timely  aid  from  one  so  eminently  fitted 
for  the  work.f 

Of  the  remaining  subjects,  Reading  has  been  entirely 
rewritten.  The  Lessons  on  Place  or  Geography  have  been 
slightly  changed,  introducing  two  or  three  original  sketches 
of  lessons  in  the  first  step,  and  so  changing  the  third  step 
as  to  adapt  it  to  our  American  locality.  Some  changes 
have  also  been  made  in  the  Lessons  on  Sound,  Size, 
and  Weight ;  new  matter  added,  and,  in  two  or  three 
instances,  substituted  for  that  contained  in  the  old  vol- 
umes. 

While  these  lessons  are  prepared  for  primary  schools, 
they  are  also  arranged  with  special  reference  to  use  in 

*  At  present  teacher  in  the  Oswego  Training  School. 

j-  Prof.  K.  was  born,  as  it  were,  in  the  very  school  of  Pestalozzi,  in  which 
his  father  was  for  twenty  years  a  leading  and  active  teacher.  For  ten  years  he 
was  engaged  with  his  father  in  teaching  a  government  school  for  the  training 
of  teachers  in  Pestalozzian  principles,  in  one  of  the  cantons  of  Switzerland,  his 
native  country.  After  this,  he  was  for  six  years  engaged  in  the  Home  and 
Colonial  Institution,  working  out  and  adapting  these  methods  to  the  English 
schools;  and  it  was  here  that  he  first  brought  out  the  Inventive  Drawing. 
In  this  country  he  has  been  for  several  years  engaged  in  teaching  normal 
schools  and  teachers'  institutes.  He  has  studied  carefully  the  characteristics 
of  our  schools  and  people  ;  and  is,  in  every  way,  abundantly  qualified  to  adapt 
thin  system  to  our  peculiarities  and  wants. 


PREFACE. 


Normal  and  Training  classes.  Model  lessons  are  given, 
and  then  subjects  suggested  on  which  similar  lessons  may 
be  drawn  up.  The  models  should  be  carefully  examined 
and  analyzed,  and,  in  the  case  of  classes  in  training,  the 
original  sketches  should  in  every  instance  be  submitted  to 
the  criticism  of  the  teacher.  By  individual  teachers,  these 
sketches  may  be  written  out  and  used  as  lessons  in  their 
schools.  In  some  of  the  lessons,  general  directions  only 
are  given  ;  in  others,  these  directions  are  more  particular ; 
while  many  are  drawn  out  at  full  length,  including  both 
questions  and  answers.  In  any  case,  they  are  only  de- 
signed as  suggestions  and  models  to  guide  teachers  in 
working  out  their  own  plans  and  methods.  Teachers 
who  confine  themselves  simply  to  the  lessons  presented  in 
this  book,  and  to  their  exact  minutiae,  can  but  fail  in  their 
work.  To  be  truly  successful,  they  must  catch  the  spirit 
and  philosophy  of  the  system,  and  work  it  out  somewhat 
in  their  own  way ;  of  course,  always  conforming  to  the 
principles  upon  which  it  is  based :  these  we  believe  to 
be  sound  and  philosophical,  and  they  should  never  be 
violated. 

The  lessons  that  have  been  taken  with  no  alteration, 
other  than  an  occasional  verbal  expression,  have  been 
indicated  either  in  the  index,  or  in  the  body  of  the  work 
where  they  occur,  by  the  letter  M. 

It  is  now  more  than  two  years  since  these  methods 
were  practically  and  thoroughly  introduced  into  the  Os- 
wego  schools,  and  from  a  constant  and  careful  observation 
of  their  working,  we  feel  that  we  are  in  some  degree 
prepared  to  judge  as  to  what  is  wanted  in  a  book  of  this 
kind  for  our  teachers  and  schools  ;  and  we  trust  we  may 
not  be  disappointed  in  the  hope  that  it  will  meet  these 
wants. 

The  subjects  are  arranged  into  steps,  simply  with  refer- 
ence to  the  order  of  time  in  which  it  is  thought  various 


PREFACE. 


portions  of  the  work  may  be  accomplished.  All  first-step 
lessons  are  designed  for  children  from  four  to  five  years 
of  age,  or  during  the  first  year  of  their  school  life.  In  the 
same  way  the  second  step  is  designed  for  the  second  year, 
and  the  third  step  for  the  third  year ;  thus  covering  the 
time  usually  allotted  to  our  primary  departments  in 
towns  where  the  schools  are  graded.  In  some  instances 
a  fourth  step  is  added,  which  is  designed  for  the  next  grade. 
The  order  of  succession  in  which  the  various  subjects  are 
arranged,  has  no  reference  to  any  order  in  which  it  may 
be  supposed  they  should  be  taken  up.  While  it  is  the  de- 
sign that  the  lessons  of  each  step,  in  every  subject,  shall 
be  taken  up  at  the  same  stage  of  the  child's  development, 
it  is  not  expected  that  they  will  all  be  treated  simulta- 
neously. From  three  to  five  only  are  taken  at  once,  and 
these  are  carried  on  until  the  interest  of  the  children  be- 
gins to  flag,  when  they  are  changed  for  other  subjects, 
which  in  their  turn  are  to  be  changed,  as  the  children 
weary,  for  others  still,  until  we  again  return  to  the  first 
course,  to  resume  it,  after  a  rapid  review,  where  we  left  it. 
This  necessity  for  change  with  little  children  cannot  be 
too  carefully  observed  ;  for  110  matter  how  interesting  the 
subject  is  at  first,  they  will  in  time  tire  of  it ;  and  a  lively 
interest  can  only  be  maintained  by  change.  Heading, 
spelling,  and  number  are  the  only  subjects  that  are 
constant.  With  the  youngest  children  the  programme 
should  change  fortnightly,  and  with  the  older  ones  month- 
ly. In  the  Appendix  may  be  seen  some  programmes  of 
the  Oswego  schools,  which  will  give  .a  very  good  idea  of 
the  way  in  which  these  may  be  arranged. 

In  the  country  schools,  where  no  such  gradation  and 
classification  are  possible,  where  the  teachers  find  it  im- 
practicable to  take  up  all  the  topics,  as  they  usually  will, 
they  must  confine  themselves  to  those  which  seem  to  them 
of  the  most  practical  importance ;  as,  for  instance,  Moral 


10  PREFACE. 

Instruction,   Keading,   Geography,    Number,   Language, 
Form,  Color,  and  Size. 

Others  might  make  a  different  selection  of  subjects : 
we  only  call  attention  to  this,  by  way  of  expressing  our 
view  of  the  importance  of  doing  well  and  thoroughly 
whatever  is  undertaken.  It  may  seem  difficult  to  make  a 
selection  of  subjects  where  all  are  important ;  but  it  is 
better  to  leave  half  of  them  untouched  than  to  undertake 
to  do  all,  and  do  nothing  as  it  should  be  done.  "Whatever 
is  taught,  let  it  be  taught  with  reference  to  correct  prin- 
ciples. 

E.  A.  SHELDON. 

OSWEGO,  Aug.  25,  1862. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

INTRODUCTION,          . 13 

Necessity  of  Training,    .  .  .  .  .  •  13 

Pestalozzian  Plans  and  Principles,  .  .  .  .  .14 

Preparation  of  Sketches,  .  .  •  .  .  16 

Criticism  Lessons,    ...,.«.       24 
Reports  of  Model  Lessons,         .....  40 

Miscellaneous  Exercises,      .  ,  .  .  .  .42 

COLOR, .  .  45 

FORM, .  .62 

OBJECTS, 86 

NUMBER, 138 

SIZE,  ........          200 

WEIGHT, 208 

SOUND, 212 

LANGUAGE  (M.), 219 

READING, 231 

DICTATION  (M.), 258 

GEOGRAPHY,          .......  263 

LESSONS  ON   THE   HUMAN   BODY  (M.),  .  .  .  .292 

LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS, 310 

LESSONS  ON  PLANTS  (M.), 359 

MORAL  INSTRUCTION, 384 

DRAWING, 419 


ELEMEH-TAET    USTSTEUCTION. 


INTKODUCTION. 

L— NECESSITY  OF  TRAINING. 

IL— PESTALOZZIAN  PLANS  AND  PRINCIPLES. 
III.— PREPARATION  OF  SKETCHES. 
IV.— CRITICISM  LESSONS. 

V.— REPORTS  OF  MODEL  LESSONS. 
VI.-MISCELLANEOUS  EXERCISES  IN  METHOD. 


I.— Necessity  of  Training. 

WERE  \ve  to  undertake  to  discuss  the  importance  of  a  regular 
apprenticeship  to  the  mechanic  who  builds  houses  or  makes  ma- 
chines, or  of  a  professional  education  to  the  artist,  the  lawyer,  or 
the  physician,  we  should  expose  ourselves  to  public  ridicule.  It 
is  too  self-evident  to  admit  of  sober  discussion.  All  regard  it  a 
necessity.  And  even  when  a  thorough  professional  education  has 
been  obtained,  or  a  complete  term  of  service  as  apprentice  served, 
we  are  slow  to  employ  them  until  their  success  has  been  tested  by 
long  'experience.  "We  are  slow  to  tnist  the  setting  of  a  broken 
bone  to  one  who  has  not  given  practical  demonstrations  of  his 
skill.  And  yet  these  things  are  important  only  in  a  physical 
sense — the  lowest  of  all  human  wants  and  necessities.  How 
much  more,  then,  would  it  seem  important  that  those  to  whom 
we  intrust  the  moral  and  intellectual  destiny  of  the  race  should 
be  carefully  educated  and  prepared  with  special  reference  to  their 
work  ! 

It  would  seem  too  obvious  to  require  an  argument,  that  every 


14:  INTRODUCTION. 

teacher  should  clearly  comprehend  the  character  of  the  infant 
mind,  and  its  mode  of  operation — the  way  in  which  each  faculty 
stands  related  to  the  other,  and  the  order  of  its  evolution — as  also 
the  related  order  of  appliances  in  the  process  of  development,  to- 
gether with  a  knowledge  of  the  many  striking  peculiarities  and 
characteristics  of  children.  It  is  clear  that,  without  this  knowl- 
edge, teachers  go  blindly  at  their  work,  and  can  but  fall  into 
many  and  grievous  errors.  One  thing  is  certain,  that  with  the 
principles  and  methods  here  discussed,  no  one  can  hope  to  succeed 
who  does  not  carefully  study  and  intelligently  practise  them. 


II.— Pestalozzian  Plans  and  Principles. 

There  are  several  different  ways  of  giving  a  lesson. 

EXAMPLE. — Six  ways  of  giving  a  Lesson  on  a  Plant. 

1.  Account  of  the  plant  learned  by  children  from  a  book,  and 
repeated  to  the  teacher. 

2.  Description  learned  and  repeated  as  before,  teacher  after- 
ward explaining  the  meaning. 

3.  Piece  first  explained  by  the  teacher,  then  learned  by  the 
children,  and  repeated. 

4.  Picture  shown — parts  pointed  out  by  teacher.     Description 
learned,  and  repeated  as  before. 

5.  Specimens  given — parts  examined  first  by  teacher,   then 
observed  by  the  children. 

6.  Specimens   distributed — parts   found  out  by  the  children, 
who  frame  a  description,  which  is  put  on  the  board  and  committed 
to  memory. 

Again,  since  all  lessons  should  be  given  in  accordance  with 
correct  philosophical  principles,  we  subjoin  the  following,  as  laid 
down  by  Pestalozzi : 

1.  Activity  is  a  law  of  childhood.  Accustom  the  child  to  do — - 
educate  the  hand. 


PESTALOZZIAIST   PLANS    AND   PKINCIPI.Eg.  15 

2.  Cultivate  the  faculties  in  their  natural  order — first  form  the 
mind,  then  furnish  it. 

3.  Begin  with  the  senses,  and  never  tell  a  child  what  he  can 
discover  for  himself. 

4.  Reduce  every  subject  to  its  elements — one  difficulty  at  a 
time  is  enough  for  a  child. 

5.  Proceed  step  by  step.     Be  thorough.     The  measure  of  in- 
formation is  not  what  the  teacher  can  give,  but  what  the  child  can 
receive. 

6.  Let  every  lesson  have  a  point.     (Except  in  junior  schools, 
when  more  than  one  lesson  is  required  before  the  point  is  reached, 
each  successively  tending  toward  it.) 

7.  Develop  the  idea — then  give  the  term — cultivate  language. 

8.  Proceed  from  the  known  to  the  unknown — from  the  par- 
ticular to  the  general — from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract — from 
the  simple  to  the  more  difficult. 

9.  First  synthesis,  then  analysis — not  the  order  of  the  subject, 
but  the  orcler  of  nature. 

Of  course,  the  educational  teacher,  in  addressing  a  class  of  stu- 
dents, would  explain  and  illustrate  these  principles.  In  order  to 
ascertain  whether  they  are  thoroughly  comprehended,  the  follow- 
ing questions  may  be  put.  Answers  should  be  given  in  writing. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  A  teacher  begins  Arithmetic  by  teaching  a  child  to  count 
orally,  1,  2,  3,  4,  &c.     What  principle  is  violated  ? 

2.  A  teacher  teaches  multiplication  by  letting  the  children 
sing  the  tables.     "What  principle  is  violated  ? 

3.  Begins  Geography  by  use  of  globes,  pointing  out  conti- 
nents, &c.     What  principle  is  violated  ? 

4.  Begins  Natural  History  by  taking  the  children  into  a  mu- 
seum where  there  are  specimens  of  all  kinds,  and  making  a  classi- 
fication.    What  principle  is  violated  ? 

5.  To  develop  an  idea,  begins  with  the  definition;  "  Children, 
I  am  going  to  teach  you  something :   '  All  things  through  which 


16  INTRODUCTION. 

we  can  see  clearly  are  transparent.'     Look  at  this  piece  of  glass." 
What  principle  is  violated  ? 

6.  Having  developed  an  idea,  omits  to  give  the  term  or  put 
it  on  the  board.     "What  principle  is  violated  ? 

7.  Gives  a  lesson    on   coal,   without   presenting   the    object. 
What  principle  is  violated  ? 

8.  Gives  a  lesson  without  observing  any  divisions  either  by 
S.  R.  (simultaneous  repetition),  or  by  W.  B.  (writing  on  the  board). 
What  principle  is  violated  ? 

9.  Teaches  Reading  by  the  name  method.     What  principle  is 
violated  ? 

10.  Adopts  a  uniform  plan  in  her  lessons,  so  that  the  children 
always  know  in  what  order  a  subject  will  be  represented.     What 
principle  is  violated  ? 

11.  Tells  the  children  that  water  is  a  liquid,  and  then  shows 
what  a  liquid  is.     What  principle  is  violated  ? 

'  12.  Gives  a  lesson  on  position  and  distance,  always  measuring 
and  representing  the  object  herself.     What  principle  is  violated  ? 

13.  Gives  a  lesson  on  the  lion,  before  the  children  have  had 
one  on  the  cat.     What  principle  is  violated  ? 

14.  A  lesson  on  perching  birds  as  an  order,  before  any  have 
been  given  on  the  robin,  canary,  and  other  individuals.     What 
principle  is  violated  ? 

15.  Teacher,  giving  lesson  on  a  tiger,  refers  to  cat — lets  one 
child  talk  of  the  cat  at  home,  another  of  the  dog,  a  third  of  the 
horse,  a  fourth  of  riding  the  horse  to  town.     What  principle  is 
violated  ? 

16.  Undertakes  to  give  lessons  on  the  parts  of  speech  to  chil 
dren  who  have  had  no  lessons  on  objects.     What  principle  is 
violated  ? 

III.— Preparation  of  Sketches. 

Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  on  the  importance  of  prepar- 
ing notes  or  sketches  in  writing.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
no  lesson  ought  to  be  given,  a  sketch  of  which  has  not  been  sys- 
tematically prepared.  In  training  students  to  this  work  it  is  found 


PREPARATION   OF   SKETCHES.  17 

desirable  to  begin  with  an  examination  and  analysis  of  a  few  sim- 
ple lessons. 

FIRST  EXAMPLE. — Sketch  on  Water. 

(See  "  Objects,"  Second  Step.) 

Directions  for  Analysis. 

1.  Matter  to  be  separated  from  method. 

2.  Point  to  be  found,  whether  definitely  stated,  or  contained  in 
the  title,  or  in  the  head. 

3.  Terms  and  information  given  to  be  distinguished  from  ideas 
developed. 

4.  Ideas  developed,  whether 

(a)  by  addressing  the  senses  directly. 
(5)  by  comparison. 

(c)  by  experiment. 

(d)  by  addressing  the  reason. 

5.  Illustration — Use    of   Board — S.    R. — Ellipses — Kind    of 
Summary. 

The  analysis  of  water  as  made  by  students  should  appear 
thus : 

1.  Matter.     See  Summary. 

2.  Point  is  contained  in  the  heads,  which  are — 

General  qualities. 

Uses,  and  special  qualities  on  which  uses  depend. 

3.  Terms  given — liquid  and  bright ;  information  given — every 
country  is  well  supplied  with  water. 

4.  Ideas  developed : 

(a)  Water  is  bright — has  neither  taste  nor  smell. 

(b)  Water  is  a  liquid — has  no  color — can  be  seen  through. 

(c)  Water  is  useful  for  washing  and  drinking.     (Memory.) 

(d)  Water  is  used  for  washing,  on  account  of  the  absence 

of  color  and  smell. 

5.  Illustrations — Ellipses  and  S.  E. — Summary  elliptical. 


18  INTRODUCTION. 


SECOND  EXAMPLE. — Lesson  on  Writing  Paper. 

"What  is  this  ?  Paper.  Whence  do  we  get  paper  ?  Does  it 
grow  upon  any  plant  ?  Does  it  come  from  off  any  animal  ?  Do 
we  dig  it  out  of  the  ground  ?  How  do  we  get  it  then  ?  It  is 
made.  Yes,  it  is  made  by  man  :  but  did  man  make  it  out  of  noth- 
ing ?  No ;  he  must  have  something  to  make  it  from.  Do  you 
know  of  what  paper  is  made  ?  It  is  made  of  rags.  Yes,  the  best 
paper  is  made  of  linen  rags.  Of  what  is  linen  made  ?  Do  you 
not  know  ?  It  is  made  from  the  fibrous  stem  of  a  very  pretty 
plant.  Here  is  a  picture  of  it ;  it  is  called  flax.  Repeat  together, 
u  Paper  is  made  of  rags ;  the  finest  paper  is  made  of  linen  rags ; 
linen  is  made  from  the  fibrous  stem  of  a  plant  called  flax."  Now, 
children,  look  at  the  paper,  and  tell  me  what  you  observe  about  it. 
It  is  white.  This  paper  is  white,  but  what  is  this  ?  Blue.  And 
this  ?  Brown.  "What  kind  of  paper  is  white  ?  "Writing  paper. 
Try  and  find  out  why  writing  paper  is  made  white.  That  we  may 
see  the  writing  upon  it.  Look  at  it  and  feel  it.  It  is  smooth. 
Put  it  between  your  thumb  and  finger.  It  is  thin.  Try  again. 
It  is  light.  Repeat  together  these  qualities,  "  "Writing  paper  is 
smooth,  thin,  and  light."  Now  hold  it  toward  the  window.  "We 
can  see  through  it.  Can  you  see  through  it  as  well  as  you  do 
through  glass  ?  What  is  the  difference  ?  We  can  see  everything 
quite  clearly  through  the  glass  ;  but  through  paper  we  only  see  the 
dim  light.  What  did  we  say  of  glass  ?  That  it  is  transparent  ; 
but  we  say  of  objects  through  which  we  can  see  light  only,  that 
they  are  translucent.  What  can  we  say  of  paper  ?  It  is  translu- 
cent. Try  what  you  can  do  with  paper.  We  can  tear  it.  What 
more  ?  We  can  bend  it  and  fold  it.  Yes ;  on  account  of  this 
quality  it  is  said  to  be  pliable.  Repeat  together,  a  Paper  is  easily 
torn :  it  can  be  easily  bent  and  folded  :  it  is  pliable."  See,  I  have 
put  a  part  of  this  sheet  of  paper  into  the  fire.  It  burns.  It  is  in- 
flammable. Why  do  we  call  paper  inflammable  ?  Because  it 
burns  readily.  Tell  me  some  other  things  that  are  inflammable. 
Wood,  coal,  &c.  Of  what  use  is  this  kind  of  paper  ?  To  write 
upon.  Yes ;  and  when  you  are  grown  up,  and  perhaps  have  to 


PREPARATION    OF    SKETCHES.  19 

live  very  far  away  from  your  father  and  mother  and  brothers,  Low 
pleasant  you  will  think  it  to  receive  a  sheet  of  paper  folded  up, 
and  brought  to  you  by  the  postman,  to  tell  you  how  they  all  are, 
and  how  they  are  getting  on  !  "What  is  such  folded-up  sheet  of 
paper  called  ?  Yes,  a  letter.  How  glad  you  will  then  be,  that 
when  you  were  young  you  went  to  school,  and  learnt  to  read,  so 
that  you  can  understand  what  is  written  in  the  letter  brought  by 
the  postman. 

After  you  have  told  me  all  you  have  found  out  about  writing 
paper,  and  sung  a  hymn,  I  will  tell  you  a  true  little  history  about 
writing.  Now  all  repeat  together,  "  Writing  paper  is  made  of 
linen  rags  ;  linen  is  made  from  the  fibrous  stem  of  a  plant  called 
flax  :  writing  paper  is  white,  translucent,  and  pliable  ;  it  is  smooth, 
thin,  light,  and  easily  torn  ;  it  is  inflammable ;  and  it  is  useful  to 
write  upon!' 

After  learning  to  spell  any  new  words  met  with  in  the  lesson, 
the  children  repeat  the  hymn — 

"  I  thank  the  goodness  and  the  grace,"  &c. 

Now  I  will  give  you  the  little  history  I  promised.  It  relates 
to  one  of  those  countries  in  which  they  worship  idols  of  wood  and 
stone,  and  where  the  people  do  not  know  God  and  Jesus  Christ. 
The  Lord  put  it  into  the  heart  of  a  very  good  man  in  England, 
Mr.  Williams,  to  go  over  and  teach  these  poor  ignorant  people 
how  they  might  be  saved  and  go  to  heaven.  How  do  the  Scrip- 
tures say  that  we  can  be  saved  ?  This  good  man  had  to  cross  the 
sea,  in  order  to  get  at  this  country.  How  did  he  manage  this  ? 
Yes ;  he  went  in  a  ship,  and  when  he  arrived  at  the  country 
where  the  people  did  not  know  God  and  Jesus  Christ,  he  began 
to  teach  them  a  great  many  things  ;  he  was  very  kind  to  them, 
and  showed  them  how  to  build  neat  little  cottages,  and  places 
where  they  might  learn  about  God ;  and  he  made  a  ship  that 
would  sail  upon  the  water.  One  day  he  was  working  very  hard 
among  them,  when  he  found  that  he  had  left  a  tool  at  home  of 
which  he  was  in  need ;  so  he  called  one  of  the  men,  and  taking  up 
a  chip  of  wood,  wrote  upon  it  the  name  of  the  tool  he  wanted,  and 
desired  the  man  to  take  it  to  his  wife,  and  that  she  >yguld  give 


20  INTRODUCTION. 

him  something  to  bring  back  with  him.  The  man  looked  aston- 
ished, and  waited  for  a  message.  "  Go  quickly,"  said  Mr.  Wil- 
liams ;  "  I  am  in  haste  ;  show  this  to  my  wife,  that  is  all." 

Now  the  poor  man,  though  he  was  a  great  man  in  that  country, 
knew  nothing  about  reading  or  writing,  and  as  he  went  he  thought, 
How  silly  it  is  to  take  this  piece  of  wood  to  show.  However,  he 
did  as  he  was  bid  ;  he  was  obedient.  How  great  was  his  surprise 
when  he  had  given  the  chip  to  Mrs.  Williams,  to  see  her  look  at 
it  and  immediately  fetch  the  instrument.  "  But  how  do  you 
know,"  said  he,  "  that  this  is  what  Mr.  Williams  sent  me  for?" 
"You  brought  me  a  chip  of  wood,"  said  Mrs.  Williams,  "and 
that  informed  me  what  I  was  to  give  you ;  you  have  now  only  to 
go  back  quickly  with  it."  He  did  so,  saying  to  himself  -as  he  re- 
turned, What  a  wonderful  people  these  Englishmen  are  ;  they  can 
make  even  a  chip  of  wood  speak  !  Now,  when  this  chief  saw  how 
much  more  than  he  or  any  of  his  people  this  kind  missionary 
knew,  he  became  willing  that  he  should  teach  them  about  God  and 
Jesus  Christ. 

You  see,  dear  children,  how  much  happier  we  are  than  these 
poor  ignorant  people.  Who  gave  us  our  many  blessings  ?  God. 
Yes ;  He  it  is  who  made  you  happy  English  children.  What 
should  you  do  ?  Praise  Him.  Is  it  enough  to  praise  Him  with 
your  lips  ?  No.  How,  then,  should  you  praise  Him  ?  We 
should  praise  Him  with  our  hearts.  Yes ;  but  when  you  were 
singing  that  pretty  little  hymn  of  praise,  I  did  not  see  you  look  as 
if  you  were  really  thanking  God  in  your  hearts.  When  a  kind 
person  has  given  you  something,  I  have  heard  you  thank  them, 
and  in  such  a  manner,  too,  that  I  am  sure  you  felt  they  had  been 
kind  to  you.  Now  I  should  like  to  hear  y.ou  thank  God  as  if 
you  indeed  felt  all  that  kindness  which  He  is  ever  pouring  out 
upon  you. 

The  analysis  of  writing  paper,  as  made  by  the  students,  should 
appear  thus : 

1.  Matter  of  the  lesson.  Paper  is  artificial.  Writing  paper  is 
made  of  linen  rags  ;  linen  is  made  of  the  stem  of  a  plant  called  flax. 
Writing  paper  is  white,  translucent,  thin,  light ;  will  tear  easily ; 
can  be  bent  and  folded ;  is  inflammable ;  and  is  useful  to  write  upon. 


PKEPAKATION    OF    SKETCHES.  21 

2.  Point  is  contained  in  the  heads,  which  are — nature,  qualities, 
and  uses  of  writing  paper. 

3.  Terms  given :  pliable,  translucent,  flax ;  information  given 
— that  paper  is  made  from  rags  (by  children) — that  linen  is  made 
from  the  stem  of  the  flax  plant,  and  the  anecdote  (by  teacher). 

4.  Ideas  developed: 

(a)  white,  smooth,  thin,  light. 

(6)  translucent ;  paper  is  of  different  colors,  though  writing 
paper  is  usually  white. 

(c)  it  will  bend  easily  ;  pliable ;  it  is  easily  torn ;  inflam- 

mable. 

(d)  that  we  may  see  to  write  on  it,  it  is  white  ;    it  is 

made  by  man ;  artificial,  but  made  of  something  that 
only  God  can  make,  and  for  which  we  must  thank 
Him.  Application  made  :  the  advantage  of  learning 
to  write. 

5.  Illustrations.      Picture  of  flax  plant  shown,  and  anecdote 
told.    Mechanical  plans — Hands  out. — Ellipses — S.  R — Elliptical 
summary. 

The  students  may  next  draw  up  notes  on  parchment  as  writing 
paper. 

THIRD  EXAMPLE. 

I.  Matter.     Parchment  is  an  animal  substance,  and  it  is  arti- 
ficial, being  the  prepared  skin  of  a  sheep.     It  is  yellowish,  stiff, 
thick,  tough,  odorous,  translucent.     It  frizzles  when  burning.     It 
is  durable,  and  therefore  used  to  write  on  when  the  writing  is  to 
be  preserved. 

II.  Point.     Nature ;  qualities ;  use,  and  quality  on  which  use 
depends. 

III.  Terms  given :  parchment,  and  refer  to  "  Ideas  Developed" 
and  supply  any  terms  with  which  they  are  unacquainted.     Infor- 
mation given  :  parchment  is  the  dried  skin  of  a  sheep  ;  it  is  used 
to  write  upon  when  the  writing  is  to  be  preserved. 

IV.  Ideas  developed: 

(a)  Yellowish  white,  thin,  smooth,  odorous. 

(b)  Stiff,  translucent. 


22  ISTKODUCTIOST. 

(c)  Flexible,  tough,  frizzles  when  burning, 
(c?)  Animal  substance,  artificial,  durable. 
/".  Illustrations.     Qualities   written    on   the   board  (S.    E.). 
Story  told. — Yerse  given. — Summary  read  from  the  board. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  preparation  so  often  referred  to 
consists  in  drawing  up  sketches  of  lessons,  not  in  fully  writing  out 
lessons.  A  report  of  a  full  lesson  on  parchment  would  appear 
thus : 

Report  of  Lesson  on  Parchment  as  Paper.  .  Do  you  know  what 
this  is  ?  It  is  paper.  It  is  like  paper.  Here  is  a  piece  of  paper ; 
see  if  you  can  find  a  difference  between  this  and  that.  The  paper  is 
white,  and  this  is  yellow.  Is  it  very  yellow  ?  It  is  rather  yellow. 
Say  it  is  yellowish.  What  did  we  find  out  in  the  last  lesson  about 
the  color  of  paper  ?  That  it  may  be  of  different  colors.  Then  pa- 
per may  be  yellow.  I  will  help  you  to  find  out  the  real  difference. 
"What  is  paper  made  from  ?  Linen  rags.  Whence  come  the 
linen  rags  ?  From  the  flax  plant.  But  this  was  never  a  part  of 
any  vegetable ;  it  is  the  dried  skin  of  a  sheep.  Does  the  skin  of 
a  sheep  look  like  this  ?  No.  What  is  the  difference  ?  The  skin 
of  the  sheep  is  woolly.  What  has  been  clone  to  it  ?  The  wool 
has  been  taken  off.  Yes,  and  it  has  been  cleaned  and  smoothed. 
Who  made  the  skin  into  parchment  ?  Man.  What  do  we  say 
of  things  made  by  man  ?  They  are  artificial.  The  dried  skin  of  a 
sheep  is  called  parchment.  I  will  write  on  the  board  the  qualities 
we  have  discovered : 

Parchment  is  an  animal  substance. 

u          "  artificial. 

"          u  yellowish  white. 

Now  feel  the  parchment  and  the  paper.  The  parchment  is 
thicker  than  the  paper.  See  what  you  can  do  with  them.  We 
can  fold  them  up.  Which  folds  the  more  easily  ?  The  paper. 
Yes,  the  parchment  is  stiff.  Do  you  know  anything  else  that  is 
stiff?  Cards,  a  pen.  Repeat  together  (R.  T.).  Things  that 
will  not  bend  nor  fold  easily  are  stiff  (W.  B.).  Try  once  again. 
We  can  tear  the  paper,  but  we  cannot  tear  the  parchment  (R.  T.). 
Parchment  is  tough.  Do  you  know  anything  else  tough  ?  India- 


PREPARATION    OF    SKETCHES.  23 

rubber  (R.  T.).  Things  that  will  not  tear  easily  are  tough  (W.B.). 
See,  I  have  put  it  into  the  fire  ;  it  frizzles.  But  when  I  put  the 
paper  into  the  fire  it  burns  up  with  a  flame.  Think  of  other  things 
that  burn  with  a  flame.  Wood,  rags.  "What  is  paper  made  from  ? 
Rags.  And  rags  come  from  the  flax  plant.  What  does  wood 
come  from  ?  Trees.  Give  me  another  name  for  plants  and  trees. 
Vegetables.  Try  and  remember  what  I  tell  you.  All  things  that 
burn  with  a  flame  come  from  vegetables  (R.  T.).  But  how  does 
the  parchment  burn  ?  It  frizzles.  Name  other  things  that  frizzle. 
Hair,  a  bone.  What  do  bones  come  from  ?  Animals.  Hair  ? 
Animals.  Parchment  itself  is  the  skin  of  an  animal.  What  can  you 
find  out  from  all  this  ?  That  things  that  frizzle  come  from  animals 
(W.  B.).  What  use  can  w^e  make  of  this  ?  It  will  do  to  write  on. 
It  is  used  to  write  on.  Can  you  tell  me  why  we  use  it,  when  we 
have  plenty  of  paper  ?  Shall  I  help  you  to  find  out  ?  Which 
can  you  destroy  more  easily ;  which  will  last  longer — paper  or 
parchment  ?  And  why  ?  Because  it  is  tough.  Now,  if  you  were 
writing  a  note,  which  would  be  torn  up  after  it  was  read,  what 
would  do  to  write  your  note  upon  ?  Paper.  But  when  people 
want  their  writing  to  last  for  years  and  years,  they  write  on  parch- 
ment. The  laws  of  the  land  are  written  on  parchment.  Now,  if 
you  answer  well,  I  will  tell  you  a  story  about  this,  after  we  have 
gone  over  what  is  written  on  the  board  (R.  T.). 

Once  on  a  time  there  lived  a  queen  in  England,  not  like  the 
present  queen,  who  is  kind  and  good  to  all.  The  former  queen 
was  ignorant,  harsh,  and  cruel.  There  were  good  people  in  the 
country,  who  loved  to  read  their  Bibles  and  to  learn ;  but  there 
were  wicked  people,  who  tried  to  prevent  them  from  doing  this, 
and  they  and  the  queen  made  a  law  that  whoever  read  the  Bible 
and  worshipped  God,  as  we  are  told  to  do,  should  be  burned 
to  death.  Now  this  queen  had  a  servant  who  was  a  clever  man. 
He  knew  that  such  a  wicked,  unjust  law  would  not  last :  Gou 
would  not  let  it.  So  they  came  to  him  about  writing  out  this  law, 
and  said,  Shall  it  be  written  out  on  parchment  or  on  paper  ?  He 
answered,  Take  paper  ;  for  the  poorest  paper  will  last  longer  than 
the  law.  And  so  it  proved ;  for  the  poor,  mistaken  queen  died, 


24  INTRODUCTION. 

and  then  the  people  could  read  and  pray  in  peace.     There  is  a 
hymn  about  this,  beginning — 

I  took  the  sacred  Book  of  God, 

To  keep,  to  fear,  to  read  it  free  ; 
But  holy  martyrs  shed  their  blood 
To  win  this  word  of  life  for  me. 
|r 

Now,  what  more  have  I  to  add  to  what  is  written  on  the 
board  ?     The  Uses  of  Parchment. 


IV.  Criticism  Lessons. 

Many  of  the  lessons  given  by  the  students  are  called  criticism 
lessons.  They  are  given  in  the  presence  of  the  members  of  the 
class,  who  express  opinions  on  the  various  points  of  the  lesson ; 
enumerating  those  in  which  they  think  the  teacher  has  succeeded, 
and  those  in  which  they  think  she  has  failed.  To  conduct  a  criti- 
cism properly,  it  is  necessary  that  there  should  be  a  presiding 
critic,  whose  opinion  is  final.  The  following  are  the  points  of 
criticism  which  are  given  as  a  guide  to  the  class : 

Points  of  Criticism. 
I.  Matter. 

1.  "Whether  suitable  to  children;  whether  exercising  observa- 
tion, conception,  reason,  or  all  these. 

2.  Lesson — whether  bearing  on  one  point ;  into  what  heads 
divided. 

3.  Whether,  in  a  Scripture  or  moral  lesson,  an  application  be 
made  ;  whether  the  right  one.     In  a  lesson  on  an  animal,  whether 
the  children  be  led  to  see  the  wisdom  and  goodness  of  God  in  the 
adaptation  of  parts  to  mode  of  life,  and  whether  humane  feelings 
be  cultivated. 

II.  Method. 

1.  Whether  the  teacher  clearly  apprehends  the  distinction  be- 
tween what  must  be  told  and  what  must  be  given. 


CRITICISM   LESSONS.  25 

2.  "Whether  she  distinguishes  the  various  mental  faculties  one 
from  another ;  knows  which  should  be,  and  how  exercised. 

3.  Whether  good  illustrations  are  used ;  the  specimens  large 
enough  and  sufficient  for  distribution;    whether  diagrams  were 
drawn  when  required. 

4.  Whether  appropriate    questions  were  used  when  general 
answers  are  wanted.     Leading  questions  only  to  obtain  an  admis- 
sion, on  which  another  question  is  based. 

5.  Whether  the  board  was  sufficiently  used — new  terms  writ- 
ten on  it ;  also  titles  and  heads  of  lessons ;  also,  with  elder  chil- 
dren, definitions  and  statements. 

6.  Summary,  of  what  kind ;  whether  of  the  kind  most  appro- 
priate to  the  children  and  the  lesson. 

7.  Whether  proper  use  was  made  of  Hands  Out  and  S.  R. 

III.  Teacher. 

1.  Whether  capable  of  swaying  class  according  to  her  will — 
of  awakening  sympathy,  including  the  sympathy  of  numbers, 

2.  Whether  attending  to  all,  or  carrying  on  the  lesson  with  a 
few  forward  children  ;  whether  taking  the  right  standing  point, 

3.  Manner — whether  appropriate — bustling  and  excited — slow 
and  languid — cheerful    and    energetic ;    whether,  if  a  Scriptural 
lesson,  reverential  tone  of  voice. 

4.  Language — whether  appropriate ;  syntax  and  correct  pro- 
nunciation. 

IV.  Children. 

1.  Whether  respectful,  attentive ;  whether  interested ;  if  so, 
to  what  interest  is  owing. 

2.  Whether  likely  to  carry  the  lesson  away  as  a  whole ;  if  a 
Scripture  or  moral  lesson,  whether  their  hearts  were  touched. 

As  a  clear  illustration  of  the  design  and  method  of  conducting 
these  lessons,  we  subjoin  the  following  remarks  and  sketch,  taken 
from  a  paper  issued  by  the  Home  and  Colonial  Institution  of 
London : — 

Two  principal  objects  are  always  kept  in  view  in  training 
teachers — the  first,  to  make  them  acquainted  with  the  principles 
2 


26  INTRODUCTION. 

of  education,  as  founded  on  the  nature  of  children ;  the  second,  to 
initiate  them  in  the  art  of  teaching.  One  of  the  most  successful 
plans  for  accomplishing  the  latter  point  has  been  that  of  the  teach- 
ers giving  a  gallery  lesson,  before  a  class  of  the  students,  who 
criticize  the  matter  and  manner  of  the  lesson,  according  to  certain 
rules  with  which  they  have  been  previously  made  acquainted  ;  these 
criticisms  being  summed  up  and  commented  upon  by  the  head 
master  or  mistress.  This  plan  acts  as  a  strong  stimulus  to  exer- 
tion; it  gives  the  head  master  the  opportunity  of  bringing  out 
the  principles  of  education,  and  applying  them  practically ;  and 
at  the  same  time  it  tends  to  produce  that  self-possession  so  neces- 
sary to  every  teacher  of  young  children. 

The  following  is  a  specimen  of  what  is  called  a  Criticism  Les- 
son, a  sketch  of  which  the  teacher  first  prepares ;  in  fact,  with  a 
few  alterations,  it  is  the  report  of  one  actually  given  at  the  Model 
Infant  School  of  the  Home  and  Colonial  Institution : — 


SKETCH    OF    A    LESSON    ON    THE    BAT.— CHILDREN    FROM    FIVE   TO 

SEVEN. 

The  children  will  be  required  to  observe  : — 

I.  The  peculiar  organization  of  the  bat.     It  has  a  body  like 
that  of  the  mouse,  and  wings  like  a  bird,  the  latter  formed  by 
the  bones  being  extended  and  the  skin  stretched;-between  them, 
the  ears  extremely  long ;    small,  sharp-pointed  teeth  ;    five  claws 
on  the  hind  feet,  somewhat  like  fingers  and  a  thumb.     It  is  also 
provided  with  hooks  on  its  wings. 

II.  Its  habits.     The  bat,  when  seeking  its  food,  which  con- 
sists of  insects  and  small  birds,  flies  like  a  bird,  but  always  in  the 
dim  twilight.     As  its  eyes  are  dazzled  by  glaring  light,  it  remains 
during  the  day  in  old  barns  or  houses,  and  suspends  itself  by  its 
hind  legs.     In  winter  it  falls  asleep. 

III.  Adaptation  of  the  organs  to  the  habits  and  propensities 
of  the  bat.     The  wings  and  expansion  of  skin  enable  it  to  fly,  and 
thus  to  get  its  food.     As  its  prey  comes  out  at  night,  it  has  acute 
feeling  to  guide  it,  instead  of  good  sight,  which  would  not  have 
been  so  useful.     It  cannot  rest  on  its  legs,  but  is  able,  by  means 


CRITICISM    LESSONS.  27 

of  hooks  and  claws,  to  suspend  itself,  with  its  head  downward, 
and  so  get  rest.  Its  food  fails  in  winter ;  it  then  falls  into  a 
sleep,  and  requires  none. 

IV.  Application.  Lead  the  children  to  trace  the  hand-  of 
God  in  all  this.  If  we  see  any  thing  beautifully  fitted  for  some 
purpose,  we  conclude  it  was  made  for  that  purpose.  God's  wis- 
dom, benevolence,  and  power  to  be  shown  in  the  adaptation  of 
all  the  parts  of  the  animal  to  its  habits. 

LESSON   TO   BE    CRITICISED. 

Teacher.  What  animal  is  this  ?     (Showing  it.) 

Children.  A  bat. 

T.  Look  at  it,  and  tell  me  something  about  it.  What  do  you 
see  peculiar  in  it  ? 

A  little  girl.  I  do  not  know  what  "  peculiar"  means. 

T.  Can  any  one  tell  her  ?     (^L  pause.) 

Another  child.  It  means  something  that  you  see  in  one  kind 
of  thing,  but  not  in  anything  else. 

T.  Well,  that  will  do.  What,  then,  do  you  see  peculiar  in 
the  bat  ? 

Several.  It  has  wings  and  hands. 

T.  What  have  you  at  the  end  of  your  own  arms  ? 

C.  Hands. 

T.  And  what  have  you  on  your  hands  ? 

C.  Fingers. 

T.  How  many  fingers  have  you  on  each  hand  ? 

All.  Four,  and  a  thumb. 

T.  Do  you  see  anything  in  this  bat  that  looks  like  four  fingers 
and  a  thumb  ? 

A  little  girl  counted  them,  and  said  there  were  four  bones  that 
looked  like  fingers. 

T.  Can  you  tell  me  the  difference  between  these  bones  and 
our  fingers  ? 

A  little  loy.  They  have  no  flesh  on  them,  and  they  are  very 
long. 

T.  What  other  difference  do  you  see  ? 


28  INTRODUCTION. 

Some  of  the  children  said  it  had  a  web,  others  that  it  had  a 
skin  between  the  fingers. 

T.  Where  does  this  skin  appear  to  come  from  ? 

C.  From  the  back. 

T.  And  what  does  it  do  ? 

C.  It  stretches  over  the  fingers. 

T.  What  has  the  bat  beside  four  fingers  ? 

C.  It  has  a  thumb. 

T.  What  does  this  thumb  look  like  ? 

C.  Like  a  claw. 

T.  But  what  kind  of  claw  ? 

(7.  It  looks  like  a  hook. 

T.  (to  an  active-looking  but  idle  little  boy).  Now,  little  boy, 
I  am  quite  sure  you  can  tell  me  something  about  this  bat. 

Boy.  It  has  teeth. 

T.  What  kind  of  teeth  has  it  ? 

Several.  Sharp  teeth. 

T.  What  kind  of  mouth  has  it  ? 

Two  or  three  children.  It  looks  like  a  beak. 

T.  Would  you  call  this  a  beak  ?   What  creatures  have  beaks  ? 

C.  Birds. 

T.  Well,  would  you  call  this  a  bird  ? 

C.  No  ;  it  is  a  beast. 

T.  What  kind  of  ears  has  it  ? 

Some  of  the  children  said,  They  are  large. 

T.  Can  you  tell  me  anything  about  the  bat's  sleeping  ? 

A  little  girl.  It  sleeps  in  the  day,  and  flies  about  in  the  twi- 
light. 

T.  Where  does  it  sleep  ? 

A.  boy.  In  a  hole. 

A  girl.  It  hangs  on  high  walls. 

A  boy.  It  hangs  on  trees. 

T.  Yes ;  they  hang  on  trees,  also  on  the  walls  of  old  houses, 
where  nobody  can  live  because  they  are  so  old ;  there  they  sleep 
all  day.  Do  you  know  what  they  hang  by  ? 

C.  By  their  feet. 

T.  If  they  hang  by  their  feet,  what  position  are  they  in  ? 


CRITICISM    LESSONS.  29 

0.  Their  heads  are  downward. 

T.  You  have  told  me  where  the  bat  lives,  and  what  it  does  by 
day ;  now  tell  me  what  it  does  when  night  comes  on. 

C.  It  goes  about. 

T.  How  does  it  go  ? 

C.  It  flies. 

T.  Why  can  it  not  walk  ? 

C.  Because  its  legs  would  not  bear  it ;  they  are  very  weak. 

T.  Then  must  it  not  be  a  very  awkward  animal  ? 

C.  No  ;  because  it  has  wings  and  a  hook  instead. 

T.  Now  tell  me  what  its  body  looks  like. 

C.  Like  a  mouse. 

T.  Have  you  ever  seen  a  mouse  like  this  animal  ? 

C.  No ;  it  has  a  skin  stretched  over  its  fingers,  and  a  mouse 
has  not ;  a  mouse  has  four  legs.  * 

T.  And  what  does  this  skin  stretched  over  its  fingers  make  ? 

C.  "Wings. 

T.  By  what  means  does  it  fly  ? 

C.  By  its  wings. 

T.  Why  does  it  fly  about  ? 

C.  To  get  its  food. 

T.  What  is  its  food  ? 

C.  Insects. 

T.  And  anything  else  ? 

A  loy.  Worms. 

T.  I  don't  think  it  eats  worms,  but  I  am  not  quite  sure  ;  how- 
ever, I  know  it  eats  little  birds.  When  does  it  come  out  ? 

(7.  In  the  twilight. 

T. .  What  do  you  mean  by  twilight  ? 

A  girl.  Night.  A  lay.  Evening;  between  day  and  night, 
when  it  is  not  quite  dark. 

T.  What  time  do  the  insects  come  out  ? 

C.  At  the  same  time  that  the  bat  comes  out. 

T.  When  it  comes  out  at  the  twilight,  can  it  see  the  insects  ? 

C.  Yes ;  because  it  has  very  sharp  eyes. 

T.  No  ;  you  have  guessed  this.  Look  at  its  eyes  ;  bats  have 
not  sharp  eyes ;  they  cannot  see  their  food  plainly,  because  their 


30  INTRODUCTION. 

eyes  are  very  small.  Then,  how  is  it  they  can  catch  their 
food?" 

Some  of  the  children.  They  have  little  nerves. 

A  little  hoy.  The  food  comes  upon  its  wings. 

The  Head  Master  (speaking  to  the  teacher).  I  do  not  think 
the  children  all  understand  how  the  bat  catches  its  food ;  be  so 
good  as  to  repeat  the  questions. 

T.  Tell  me  how  it  catches  its  food. 

A  hoy.  The  food  comes  upon  its  wings. 

T.  I  will  tell  you  :  when  the  insect  flies  upon  the  wings  of  the 
bat,  it  shuts  them  up  very  quickly,  and  turns  its  mouth  around 
sharply  and  catches  it.  What,  then,  is  one  of  the  uses  of  the 
wings  of  the  bat  ? 

Several.  To  get  its  food. 

2>  Why  does  it  need  its  wings  to  get  its  food  ? 

C.-  Because  there  is  very  little  light,  and  it  cannot  see  plainly. 

T.  And  what  are  the  hooks  for  ? 

C.  For  the  bat  to  hang  on  the  wall. 

T.  There  is  something  else  about  the-  bat  that  you  do  not 
know,  I  think.  Shall  I  tell  you  ?  It  goes  to  sleep  all  the  winter. 
Why  should  it  sleep  all  the  winter  ? 

C.  Because  no  insects  come  out. 

T.  What  would  become  of  it  if  there  were  no  insects  ? 

C.  It  would  starve. 

T.  Now  tell  me  again,  what  is  the  use  of  the  wings  to  the 
bat? 

C.  To  fly  with,  and  to  catch  its  food. 

The  teacher  repeated  all  the  questions  on  this  point. 

To  the  question,  why  the  bat  could  not  find  its  prey  without 
its  wings,  a  little  girl  replied,  "  Because  its  eyes  is  dull" — a  fault 
in  grammar  which  the  teacher  required  the  children  to  correct. 

T.  What  is  the  use  of  its  claws  ? 

C.  To  hang  on  the  walls. 

T.  When  does  it  hang  on  the  walls  ? 

C.  In  the  day. 

T.  If  this  large  body  (pointing  to  the  hody  of  the  hat)  were 
to  walk  on  the  ground,  what  would  become  of  its  delicate  legs  ? 


CRITICISM   LESSONS.  31 

C.  They  would  break. 

T.  And  what  would  happen  to  the  wings  ? 

A  little  girl.  They  would  break  too. 

T.  Is  "  break "\he  word  to  use? 

A  boy.  They  would  be  torn. 

T.  Now  attend  to  what  I  am  going  to  ask  you,  and  speak 
quietly  :  Who  gave  the  bat  these  wings  ? 

The  children  replied  in  a  low  tone  of  voice,  "  God." 

T.  What  did  he  give  the  bat  wings  for  ? 

C.  To  fly  in  the  air. 

T.  And  when  you  see  this  bat  has  wings,  what  are  you  sure 
it  was  made  for  ? 

C.  To  fly  in  the  air. 

T.  If  it  looked  like  a  mouse,  and  if  it  had  not  these  wings, 
what  would  you  think  it  was  made  for  ? 

C.  To  walk  like  a  mouse. 

T.  And  suppose  it  had  not  these  wings,  what  sort  of  eyes 
would  it  most  likely  have  ? 

C.  Sharp  eyes. 

T.  When  we  see  that  God  has  given  the  bat  these  wings, 
what  are  we  quite  sure  he  has  made  it  for  ? 

C.  To  fly  in  the  air. 

T.  What  does  this  show  you  of  God  ? 

C.  It  shows  us  his  power  and  wisdom. 

T.  Wisdom  in  what  ? 

C.  In  giving  the  bat  wings  to  fly. 

T.  How  does  that  show  his  wisdom  ? 

C.  (after  a  pause).  Because  it  would  starve  if  it  had  not 
wings. 

T.  And  what  else  does  it  show  beside  his  wisdon.  ? 

C.  (after  another  pause).     His  goodness. 

T.  His  goodness  in  what  ? 

C.  In  giving  the  bat  these  wings  to  fly  in  the  air. 

T.  But  why  does  that  show  his  goodness  ? 

C.  Because  it  would  not  be  able  to  get  its  food  without 
them. 

T.  Then  there  is  another  thing  that  shows  God's  goodness ; 


32  INTRODUCTION. 

what  is  it  ?  (No  answer.)  What  did  I  tell  you  it  does  in  the 
winter  ? 

C.  It  sleeps. 

T.  Well,  how  does  that  show  God's  goodness? 

C.  Because,  when  there  are  no  insects,  it  does  not  require  any 
food. 

T.  Can  you  give  me  a  text  which  speaks  of  God's  goodness 
to  all  the  things  which  he  has  made  ? 

After  a  short  pause,  a  little  girl  said,  "  0  Lord,  how  manifold 
are  thy  works  !  in  wisdom  hast  thou  made  them  all :  the  earth  is 
full  of  thy  riches." 

T.  Now,  can  you  give  me  another  short  one  ?  (No  answer.) 
Well,  I  will  repeat  it :  "  The  Lord  is  good  to  all ;  and  his  tender 
mercies  are  over  all  his  works."  Now  repeat  it  after  me. 

The  children  did  so  three  or  four  times.  The  lesson  then 
closed,  and  the  children  marched  out  of  the  room  singing. 

THE    CRITICISM    OF    THE    TEACHERS    IN    TRAINING    ON    THE    PRE- 
CEDING   LESSON. 

Head  Master  (addressing  the  teachers).  You  have  now  to  ex- 
ercise your  judgment  on  the  matter  of  this  lesson,  and  on  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  was  given.  Before  you  can  give  a  correct  opinion 
on  a  lesson,  with  what  science  ought  you  to  be,  in  some  degree, 
acquainted  ? 

A  Teacher.  With  the  science  of  education. 

H.  M.  And  what  are  the  subjects  which  this  science  acts 
upon? 

T.  Children. 

H.  M.  What,  then,  should  you  know  ? 

T.  Something  of  the  nature  of  children,  and  of  the  best 
method  of  working  upon  them  so  as  to  develop  their  faculties  and 
form  their  characters. 

H.  M.  Recollect  that  the  object  of  your  "  criticism  lessons"  is 
not  to  sit  in  judgment  upon  a  companion — you  have  nothing  to  do 
with  the  person  ;  you  are  only  so  to  appreciate  the  right  and  the 
wrong  of  the  lesson  that  you  may  be  led  to  imitate  the  one,  and 
to  avoid  the  other — that  thus  both  you  and  the  teacher  whose  les- 


CRITICISM   LESSONS. 

son  you  are  to  consider,  may  learn  to  profit  by  our  j65 
Can  you  tell  me  what  ought  mainly  to  guide  a  teacher 
lesson  as  this — what  main  objects,  or  points,  she  should  keep  be- 
fore her  in  a  lesson  on  natural  history  ? 

T.  The  adaptation  of  the  parts  of  an  animal  to  its  habits. 

II.  M.  Be  a  little  more  general :  what  should  be  her  main 
design  ? 

T.  To  communicate  information. 

H.  M.  Would  you  make  it  the  main  object  of  such  a  lesson 
to  communicate  information  ? 

Another  T.  Certainly  not. 

H.  M.  What,  then,  would  be  your  object — what  effect  would 
you  propose  to  produce  on  the  children  ? 

T.  I  would  call  forth  their  observation — I  would  require  them 
to  notice  all  the  parts  of  the  animal,  and  to  examine  them  very 
minutely. 

H.  M.  Now,  suppose  that  repeated  from  day  to  day,  what  do 
you  think  wo  aid  be  cultivated  ? 

T.  Habits  of  observation. 

H.  M.  And  with  young  children,  this  is  one  main  purpose  of 
these  lessons.  The  communication  of  information  is  a  secondary 
one.  Our  first  object  is  to  discipline  their  minds,  and  prepare 
them  to  acquire  knowledge.  When  you  merely  communicate  in- 
formation, the  mind  of  the  child  is  in  a  passive  state,  which  is  the 
very  opposite  of  that  in  which  it  ought  to  be.  No  doubt,  the  love 
and  the  pursuit  of  truth  are  among  the  ultimate  objects  of  educa- 
tion :  but  daring  the  training  of  your  children,  you  are  only  pre- 
paring them  for  these  objects.  As  the  children  looked  at  and  saw 
the  nice  and  curious  claw  of  the  bat,  the  strangely  formed  wing 
without  any  feathers,  the  body  like  that  of  a  mouse,  the  feet  not 
made  for  walking,  and  were  told  of  the  fine  sense  of  feeling  given 
to  it,  did  it  occur  to  you  that  they  did  more  than  obtain  informa- 
tion? 

T.  Curiosity  was  excited  ;  and  the  tendency  of  this  curiosity 
is  to  create  an  interest  in  all  the  objects  by  which  they  are  sur- 
rounded. 

H.  M.    Then,  as  it  regards  information,  do  you  see  anything 
2* 


34  INTRODUCTION. 

in  connection  with  the  lesson  that  would,  if  it  did  not  give  them 
information,  tend  to  the  same  result  ? 

T.  The  children  would  be  led  to  get  it  themselves,  their  curi- 
osity having  been  excited. 

H.  M.  Yes ;  we  should  not  value  a  lesson  so  much  for  the  in- 
formation it  gives,  as  for  its  tendency  to  cultivate  in  our  children 
power  and  inclination  to  acquire  information  for  themselves.  We 
should  endeavor  to  open  to  them  the  extensive  volume  of  nature, 
and  so  to  improve  their  faculties,  that  they  may  themselves  inves- 
tigate it. 

T.  You  cannot  call  upon  a  child  to  observe  anything,  with- 
out, in  some  way,  giving  him  information. 

H.  M.  True.  But  do  you  not  see  the  difference  between  giv- 
ing information,  and  making  him  observe  and  examine  a  thing  for 
himself? 

T.  'Not  clearly. 

H.  M.  In  the  one  you  direct  the  child's  own  efforts — you  cul- 
tivate a  power  in  the  child  which  must  always  be  useful ;  in  the 
other  you  merely  pour  in  information,  which  may  or  may  not  be 
remembered.  But  it  is  not  on  the  mind  only  that  we  produce 
effects.  Do  you  know  what  is  our  further  design  in  a  lesson  in 
natural  history  ? 

T.  To  teach  the  heart ;  to  administer,  it  may  be  moral,  and 
even  spiritual  good,  to  the  children. 

H.  M.  How  is  this  done  ? 

T.  By  showing  them  the  goodness  of  God  in  his  works  :  this 
leads  them  to  cultivate  humane  feelings,  and  to  be  kind  to  animals. 

H.  M.  Yes.  And  though  the  teacher  said  nothing  about  hu- 
mane feelings,  yet  when  the  children  were  led  to  see  how  wise 
and  gracious  God  has  been  in  adapting  the  parts  of  the  animal  to 
its  uses,  they  must  have  felt  interested  in  the  animal,  and  be  less 
disposed  to  treat  it  unkindly,  and  have  been  taught  also  to  r.dmire 
the  wisdom  and  power  of  God.  I  will  now  read  the  sketch  of  the 
lesson. — The  Head  Master  having  read  the  sketch,  continued  : — 
Now  you  are  in  possession  of  the  general  object  contemplated  in 
such  a  lesson  as  this ;  and  you  have  also  the  teacher's  written 
sketch,  stating  her  special  object  and  the  manner  of  working  it 


ORITIOISM    LESSONS.  35 

out ;  YOU  are,  therefore,  prepared  to  determine  how  far  the  teacher 
accompl^od  her  purpose. 

The  Hea.i  Master  then  directed  the  teachers  to  turn  to  page 
50  of  "  Useful  Hints  to  Teachers,"*  and  to  make  use  of  the  points 
that  are  there  given,  confining  their  attention  to  one  of  the  three 
general  divisions. 

First  Teacher.  I  think  the  sketch  is  clearly  arranged.  The 
matter  was  well  selected,  and  not  too  much  for  such  children. 
'1  L,3re  also  appeared  to  me  some  attention  paid  to  each  part  of  the 
lesson,  the  animal  itself  being  the  chief  thing  in  such  a  lesson. 
There  was,  however,  a  want  of  clearness — each  point  was  not,  as 
it  were,  settled  as  the  teacher  went  on.  I  think  a  summary  was 
not  'necessary ;  there  was  repetition,  which  supplied  the  place  of 
a  summary.  The  children  were  led  to  see  the  wisdom  and  good- 
ness of.  God  in  so  admirably  adapting  the  structure  of  the  animal 
to  its  habits. 

Second  Teacher.  I  think  the  teacher  seemed  to  have  com- 
mand over  the  children.  Order  and  attention  were  preserved,  in 
part  by  the  power  of  the  teacher,  but  especially  by  the  interest  of 
the  lesson.  I  do  not,  however,  think  that  the  interest  in  general 
was  altogether  so  well  kept  up  as  it  might  have  been,  though 
many  of  the  children  seemed  attentive.  They  saw  very  clearly 
how  God  had  provided  the  animal  with  means  adapted  to  the 
catching  of  its  food,  and  with  an  instinct  which  enables  it,  when 
there  is  no  food,  to  dispense  with  it  altogether. 

Third  Teacher.  I  think  the  teacher's  manner  was  kind.  She 
did  not,  however,  speak  with  sufficient  firmness  to  the  children.  I 
thought  her  tone  of  voice  was  very  good.  She  paid  great  atten- 
tion to  the  pronunciation  of  the  children,  and  corrected  them  in 
grammar.  I  thought  the  children  might  have  been  made  to 
repeat  with  advantage  some  parts  which  they  did  not. 

H.  M.  Do  you  suggest  repetition  as  a  means  of  keeping  up 
the  general  attention  ? 

T.  Yes ;  and  also  of  fixing  the  ideas  gained  on  their  minds. 
The  questions  were  in  general  good ;  but  she  did  not  always  work 
out  what  the  first  question  of  a  series  seemed  to  aim  at. 
^        *  One  of  the  London  Society's  publications. 


36  INTRODUCTION. 

H.  M.    "When  do  you  consider  a  question 

T.  When  the  children,  by  means  of  it,  are  led  to  think. 

H.  M.  That  is  certainly  one  good  feature  of  Q  question— ;n- 
deed,  an  essential  one  ;  but  your  answer  is  general. 

T.  It  should  be  a  question  which  leads  them  to  observe,  com- 
pare, or  draw  a  right  conclusion,  as  the  case  may  be.  There  was 
one  point  in  the  questioning  which  struck  me  as  bad  ;  she  asked, 
how  the  bat  caught  its  prey,  and  then  did  not  wait  for  an  answer, 
but  went  on. 

H.  M.  Yes ;  this  arises  sometimes  from  want  of  patience, 
sometimes  from  not  holding  the  idea  to  be  developed  with  tenaci- 
ty ;  it  often  defeats  all  the  ends  of  questioning,  and  causes  confu- 
sion in  the  gallery,  A  question  may  be  good  or  bad,  as  it  is,  or 
is  not,  followed  by  another.  Would  you  consider  the  question, 
"  Do  you  know  how  the  bat  obtains  its  prey?"  a  good  one  ? 

T.  Such  a  question  would  only  bring  out  Yes  or  No. 

H.  M.  It  is  therefore  bad.  Such  a  question  is  of  no  use,  ex- 
cept to  ascertain  what  extent  of  knowledge  the  children  have  ; 
and  it  leads  to  a  habit  of  guessing. 

T.  I  did  not  observe  that  any  of  .the  incidental  circumstances 
of  the  lesson  were  noticed. 

H.  M.    What  do  you  mean  by  incidental  circumstances  ? 

T.  The  state  of  the  children. 

H.  M.  Do  you  call  their  mere  state,  as  being  quiet  or  noisy, 
attentive  or  inattentive,  an  incidental  circumstance  ?  (A  pause.) 
What  does  any  one  understand  by  an  incidental  circumstance  ? 

A  Teacher.  Anything  happening  in  the  course  of  the  lesson 
that  the  teacher  did  not  expect,  and  that  did  not  properly  belong 
to  it.  Such  incidents  may  often  be  used  to  give  interest  to  a  les- 
son. 

Third  Teacher  (in  continuation).  I  think  she  was  right  in 
correcting  the  children  in  grammar.  The  words  she  made  use  of 
were  sufficiently  plain  and  simple.  But  she  did  not  make  them 
hold  out  their  hands  before  speaking,  as  much  as  they  ought  to 
have  done. 

H.  M.  What  is  the  use  of  making  children  hold  out  their 
hands  ? 


CRITICISM    LESSONS.  37 

T.  To  prevent  disorder.  But  she  allowed  them  to  speak  with- 
out waiting  till  she  had  pointed  to  them. 

//.  M.  The  main  use  of  this  practice  is,  to  ascertain  what 
children  are  really  at  work,  and  to  prevent  the  forward  from  an- 
swering all  the  questions  ;  to  secure,  in  short,  attention  and  thought 
from  as  many  children  as  practicable. 

Fifth  Teacher.  The  sketch  of  the  lesson  was  not  worked  out 
in  that  part  that  spoke  of  the  wings.  I  do  not  think  the  children 
understood  how  the  sense  of  touch  in  the  wings  of  the  bat  helped 
the  animal  to  obtain  its  food.  She  appeared  to  confound  the  sense 
of  touch  with  the  fact  of  the  closing  of  the  wings  ;  I  thought  she 
seemed  rather  confused  about  it  herself.  Might  she  not  have  said 
a  little  more  about  the  eye  of  the  bat  ? 

//.  M.  Will  the  next  teacher  make  her  observations  without 
i Erring  specially  to  the  points  already  noticed,  but  keeping  in 
view  the  general  objects  to  which  I  called  attention  before  we 
began  to  make  our  remarks  ? 

Sixth  Teacher.  I  think  that  what  the  teacher  proposed  to  do 
in  the  first  stage  of  the  lesson  was  well  calculated  to  cultivate  ob- 
servation, and  to  excite  the  interest  and  curiosity  of  the  children. 
She  might,  perhaps,  have  better  prepared  them  to  admire  God's 
wisdom  and  goodness,  by  first  showing  them  that  the  generality 
of  animals  with  wings  are  birds,  but  that  the  present  one  was  a 
singular  cas-e.  She  might  have  led  them  to  see  that  although  the 
animal  had  wings,  yet  that  it  had  not  another  essential  part  of  the 
bird,  viz.,  a  beak ;  that  while  it  had  wings,  it  had  a  mouth  with 
teeth,  which  birds  have  not.  And  then  she  might  have  led  them 
to  see  that  it  was  most  like  a  mammal ;  for  although  it  had  wings, 
which  were  the  only  things  that  it  had  in  common  with  birds,  yet 
that  those  wings  had  no  feathers,  and  that  although  it  appeared  to 
be  a  bird,  yet  that  in  reality  it  had  not  the  same  parts  as  the  bird. 
Then  she  could  have  shown  them  how  adapted  its  parts  were  fov 
procuring  its  food,  inasmuch  as  it  lived  on  insects  in  the  air ;  and 
being  a  mammal,  and  its  food  being  in  the  air,  if  it  had  no  wings 
it  could  not  have  procured  its  food,  and  would,  therefore,  have 
starved.  I  have  no  doubt  it  might  have  brought  the  children  to 
a  stand,  to  determine  whether  it  was  a  bird  .or  a  mammal ;  if  she 


38  INTRODUCTION. 

had  shown  them  it  had  wings,  they  would  have  immediately  said 
it  was  a  bird ;  but  when  she  drew  their  attention  to  the  mouth, 
teeth,  and  body,  they  would  have  seen  that  it  was  not  a  bird,  but 
that  it  had  the  appearance  of  a  mouse ;  this,  however,  might  have 
led  to  a  profitable  warning  against  hasty  judgments ;  it  might 
have  enabled  her  also  to  lead  them  to  see  more  clearly  the 
goodness  of  God  in  supplying  this  creature  with  wings.  I  think 
the  teacher  was  extremely  kind,  and  able  to  give  the  children 
information. 

Seventh  Teacher.  The  main  points  of  the  lesson,  good  and 
bad,  have  been  already  touched  upon.  I  thought  the  first  part  of 
the  lesson  was,  upon  the  whole,  very  well  given,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  that  spoken  of  by  the  last  teacher  with  regard  to  the  dif- 
ference between  the  mammal  and  the  bird.  In  the  habits  of  the 
'bat,  and  the  adaptation  of  its  parts  to  these  habits,  there  WP*  •<* 
little  confusion ;  but  there  was  one  good  proof  that  the  cl^dren 
sympathized  with  the  teacher ;  that  is,  the  interest  increased  as  she 
went  on,  and  when  the  lesson  was  finished,  the  interest  seemed  to 
be  greater  than  at  any  other  period.  She  might  sometimes  have 
exercised  their  minds  a  little  more  when  they  gave  her  an  oppor- 
tunity, as^  in  correcting  wrong  answers,  and  making  the  younger 
ones  answer  more  frequently.  Also,  about  the  old  walls,  I  think 
she  might  have  got  that  out  of  the  children  without  telling  them. 
With  respect  to  the  bat  getting  its  food,  she  told  them  something 
which  I  think  she  might  have  drawn  from  them  without  telling 
them.  I  think  the  sketch  is  very  well  written,  and  very  clear, 
and,  had  she  adhered  to  it,  she  would  have  given,  in  my  judgment, 
an  excellent  lesson. 

H.  M.  In  the  remarks  of  the  teachers  generally,  I  quite  con- 
cur. On  the  latter  part  of  the  lesson  particularly,  they  are  very 
good.  The  first  part  of  the  lesson  (that  which  required  the  chil- 
dren to  observe)  was  worked  out  the  best.  Are  we  to  suppose 
that  the  teacher  had  then  most  time  on  her  hands,  or  that  she  ex- 
cels more  in  cultivating  the  observing  faculties  of  her  children  than 
the  reflective  ?  This  is  a  feature  I  often  remark  among  the  teach- 
ers in  training. 

The  teacher  started  well  with  the  second  head,  the  animal's 


CRITICISM    LESSONS.  39 

habits  ;  but  she  did  not  keep  the  children  so  close  to  them  as  she 
might  have  done. 

"When  any  idea  has  been  worked  out,  the  children  should 
always  be  made  to  express  it  clearly.  The  teacher  several  times 
failed  in  this ;  as  when  she  led  the  children  to  observe  the  wings 
and  the  hooks.  It  was  rather  by  a  kind  of  false  reasoning,  or 
taking  something  for  granted,  than  by  observation,  that  the  animal 
was  discovered  to  have  a  mouth  instead  of  a  beak. 

In  the  third  part  of  the  lesson,  although  she  failed  a  little  in 
holding  firmly  her  own  ideas,  and  in  leading  the  children  to  see 
clearly  the  adaptation  of  th?  organs,  yet  it  was  fairly  done.  It  is 
much  to  her  credit,  that,  whilst  she  lost  herself  several  times  dur- 
ing the  lesson,  she  rallied ;  a  circumstance  which  always  proves 
to  me  that  the  teacher  has  made  progress  in  her  training.  She 
had  her  point  before  her,  but  stumbled  in  attaining  it. 

You  gave  the  sketch  credit  for  being  full  and  clear ;  but  did  it 
not  evince  thought  and  ingenuity  in  its  arrangement  ?  There  was 
a  nice  choice  of  parts  and  habits,  which  told  well  in  leading  the 
children  to  perceive  adaptation.  I  hardly  agree  with  one  of  you 
about  omitting  the  summing  up.  Although  there  was  a  great  deal 
of  repetition,  I  do  not  think  that  repetition  ought  to  have  supplied 
the  place  of  a  summary ;  it  does  not  answer  the  same  purpose. 
Neither  do  I  think  that  in  such  a  lesson  a  summary  is  unnecessary. 
Whenever  you  want  to  make  an  impression  on  the  hearts  of  the 
children,  you  should  endeavor  to  bring  before  them,  in  a  connected 
form,  those  features  or  ideas  of  the  lesson  by  which  you  expect  to 
produce  such  an  effect. 

The  fourth  head  was  to  lead  the  children  to  see  and  feel  the 
wisdom,  power,  and  goodness  of  God.  Now,  to  accomplish  this, 
a  summary  of  the  points  of  adaptation  ought  to  have  been  made 
and  repeated  by  the  children ;  such  as,  The  body  is  that  of  an 
animal,  but  its  food  is  in  the  air ;  therefore,  to  procure  this  food, 
God  has  given  it  wings.  It  comes  out  in  the  dusk,  when  its  prey 
is  abroad,  and  it  catches  it  while  flying ;  therefore  God  has  pro- 
vided it  with  a  sense  of  touch  so  exquisite,  as  to  be  equal  to  sight, 
and  also  with  a  large  mouth.  These  points  and  others,  brought 
into  one  or  two  sentences,  should  have  been  repeated  before  mak- 


4:0  INTRODUCTION. 

/ 

ing  the  application.  It  has  often  been  remarked  to  you,  that  whilst 
the  true  catechetical  method  of  teaching  is  admirable,  yet  one 
effect  of  giving  lessons  by  questions  is,  that  of  separating  it  into 
parts  or  fragments,  and  consequently  the  children  cannot  see  the 
matter  of  the  lesson  as  a  whole,  or  the  harmony  and  dependence 
of  its  parts.  The  summary  ought  amply  to  make  up  for  this,  and 
after  a  minute  and  accurate  examination  of  the  parts,  to  present 
the  subject  as  a  whole. 

There  was  a  little  of  the  same  want  of  power  in  the  applica- 
tion that  I  remarked  under  the  third  head  ;  but  it  must  be  admit- 
ted that  this  is  the  most  difficult  part  of  a  lesson.  It  requires 
sound  judgment,  very  considerable  clearness,  and  no  small  degree 
of  practice.  A  teacher  may  consider  herself  well  advanced  in 
training  when  she  is  able  to  do  it  clearly.  I  like  the  remarks  of 
one  of  the  teachers  on  the  order  and  attention  of  the  children.  I 
do  not  know  that  she  required  to  show  very  much  power  of  com- 
mand, because  the  children  were  particularly  steady  and  willing 
to  work.  The  interest  of  several  was  very  satisfactory,  but  it  was 
not  general. 

Such  questions  as,  "  "What  time  do  the  insects  come  out  ?  " 
"  Can  the  bat  see  the  insects  ?  "  are  bad,  because  they  lead  the 
children  to  guess  ;  they  imply  knowledge  which  the  children  have 
not.  With  the  exceptions  stated,  the  great  principle  of  not  tell- 
ing young  children  what  they  can  discover  by  the  exercise  of  their 
own  faculties,  was  carried  out ;  also  the  important  one  of  keeping 
the  children  intellectually  active  during  the  lesson.  Finally,  a 
religious  turn  was  given  to  the  lesson,  without  any  apparently 
forced  feeling  on  the  part  of  either  the  teacher  or  children. 

V.— Reports  of  Model  Lessons. 

Simultaneously  with  the  Criticism  Lessons,  it  is  of  equal  im- 
portance that  the  class  should  see  a  sufficient  number  of  Model 
Lessons,  i.  e.,  lessons  given  by  teachers  thoroughly  trained,  with 
the  view  of  exemplifying  the  treatment  of  a  given  subject.  The 
class  should  learn  to  draw  up  reports  (abstracts)  of  these  lessons 
while  hearing  them,  or  directly  afterward,  taking  special  notice  of — 


REPORTS   OF   MODEL   LESSONS. 


41 


1.  The  ideas  the  teacher  draws  from  the  children. 

2.  The  plan  she  adopts  in  order  to  draw  out  these  ideas. 

EXAMPLE. — Report  of  Model  Lesson  on  the  Seal. 


I. — Habits,  etc. 

1.  The  seal  lives  in 
water    and    on    land. 
It   is    found    in    cold 
countries. 

2.  The  seal  feeds  on 
water  fowl  and  fish. 


3.  The  seal  is  lov- 
ing and  intelligent. 


4.  The  hearing  of 
the  seal  is  acute. 

II. — Adaptation  of 
structure  to  habits. 

1.  The  body  of  the 
seal  should  be  light, 
slender,  tapering,  and 
flexible. 


2.  The  limbs  of  the 
seal  should  be  short 
and  broad. 


I. — 1.  Drawn  from  the  children,  who 
were  led  to  form  the  sentence,  which  was 
written  on  the  board. 


2.  Drawn  from  the  children  by  asking 
them  what  food  the  seal  would  be  likely 
to  find  in  or  near  the   water,  and  such 
framed  into  a  sentence,  and  W.  B. 

3.  Drawn  from  the  children  by  ques- 
tioning on  an  anecdote  told  them.     Terms 
loving  and  intelligent  given.     (S.  R.)    Sen- 
tence framed.     (W.  B.) 

4.  Drawn  as  an  inference  from  anecdote 
told.    Little  girl  gave  term  acute.  (W.  B.) 

II.— 

1.  Drawn  from  the  children  by  refer- 
ence to  the  animal's  food,  fish ;   how  these 
move    rapidly,    suddenly ;    how   the    seal 
must   move  rapidly  also  to    catch    them. 
What  kind  of  body  he  must  have  to  ena- 
ble him  to  move  and  turn  quickly.    Teach- 
er required  the  children  to  represent  on  the 
board  such  a  shaped  body  as  seal  ought  to 
have. 

2.  The  necessity  for  breadth  drawn  out 
by  reference  to  different  things  made  to 
go  in  the  water,  as  oars  of  a  boat,  fins  of 
a  fish,   &c.     Why  the  seal  cannot  have 
fins,  drawn  out  by  reference  to  his  double 
habitation  (land  and  water).     Advantage 
of  shortness  drawn  out  by  asking  why  the 
limbs  of  a  clog  would  not  suit  the  seal — 
they  would  be  too  narrow  as  well  as  too 
long. 


INTRODUCTION. 


3.  The   tail  of  the 
seal  should   be  broad 
and  flexible. 

4.  The  seal  should 
have      sharp,      strong 
teeth. 

5.  The  seal  should 
have  lungs. 

6.  The  seal  should 
have   a   warm   cover- 
ing. 


7.  The  seal  has 
short,  thick,  smooth 
fur. 


3.  Brought  out  by  reference  to  a  rud- 
der. 

4.  Brought   out    by   reference   to   the 
character  of  its  food. 

5.  Brought  out  by  reference  to  its  com- 
ing to  land,  and  its  swimming  with  its  head 
above  the  surface. 

6.  Brought  out  by  exercising  the  rea- 
son in  discovering  what  kind  of  covering 
an  animal  thus  situated  needs.     Children 
at  first  said  scales.      Teacher  told  them 
these  would  not  be  warm  enough,  but  de- 
sired them  to  judge  how  it  was  that  scales 
would  suit  the  fish  and  not  the  seal.     Oth- 
ers supposed  that  because  the  seal  some- 
times carne  out  of  the  water ;  others,  be- 
cause the  fish  lived  in  warm  countries. 
By  referring  to  the  sensation  of  feeling  or 
touching  a  fish,  led  them  to  see  that  the 
fish  had  cold  blood.     Teacher  told  them 
that  the  seal  had  warm  blood,  and  there- 
fore needed  warm  covering. 

By  reference  to  the  covering  of  a  dog, 
sheep,  and  the  effect  of  water,  etc.,  on 
this,  children  decided  what  sort  of  cover- 
ing an  animal  needs  which  is  always  swim- 
ming, or  climbing  rocks. 

Each  point,  as  drawn  from  the  children, 
framed  into  a  sentence,  and  put  on  the 
board. 

Summary  read  from  the  board. 


VI.— Miscellaneous  Exercises  in  Method. 

FIRST  EXAMPLE. — Exercise  on  the  Fable,   "  The  Lark  and  her 

Young  Ones" 
(See  "Moral  Instruction"  last  lesson  of  Second  Step.) 

Directions  for  Students. 
I. — State  the  Point. 
II. — Find  the  Introduction. 


MISCELLANEOUS   EXERCISES   IN   METHOD.  43 

III. — Find  the  Points  on  which  the  Conceptive  Faculties 
should  be  exercised. 

IV. — Find  the  Points  on  which  the  Reasoning  Faculties 
should  be  exercised. 

V. — Where  the  application  should  be  made. 
/ 

Students1  Answers. 

I.  Point. — To  teach  the  advantage  of  self-reliance. 

II.  Introduction. — To  see  that  the  children  have  an  idea  of  a 
lark — kind  of  bird  as  to  size,  color,  mode  of  life — before  telling 
the  story. 

III.  Points  on  which  the  Conceptive  faculties  are  exercised. — 
The  corn  field — appearance  of  the  ripe  corn — the  hidden  nest, 
with  mother  bird  and  young  ones — the  anxiety  of  the  farmer — 
conversation  in  the  field — should  be,  as  it  were,  dramatically  ren- 

"  dered. 

IV-.  Points  on  ivhich  to  exercise  the  Reasoning  Faculties. — 
"Why  the  lark  builds  her  low  nest  amongst  the  corn.  What  dan- 
ger she  avoids.  What  danger  she  incurs.  What  the  young  birds 
would  infer  from  the  first  and  second  conversations.  What  the 
old  bird.  What  the  young  birds  would  infer  from  the  third  con- 
versation. What  the  old  bird.  What  she  would  do. 

V.  Application. — To  be  made  after  the  narration  of  each  con- 
versation. 

SECOND  EXAMPLE. — Exercise  on  Sketch  on  the  Tortoise. 
(See  "  Course  >n  Animals"  "Miscellaneous  Sketches") 

Students  examine  sketch,  and  state : 
I. — What  is  told,  and  why. 
II. — What  must  be  developed. 
III. — Where  the  Observation  is  exercised. 
IV. — Where  the  Reasoning  Faculty. 
V. — Where  the  G&nceptive  Faculty. 

Students'  work  should  stand  substantially  as  follows  : — 
I. — 1.  What  is  told.— The  tortoise  lives  either  on  land  or  in 
water      It  moves  slowl^  ^  the  ground,   but  swims  beautifully. 


44  INTRODUCTION. 

It  comes  on  land  to  deposit  its  eggs,  of  which  it  lays  a  great  num- 
ber— scrapes  a  hole  in  the  ground,  and  leaves  them  to  be  hatched 
by  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

1.  "Why. — Because  the  children  have  no  opportunity  of  ob- 
serving. 

2.  What  is  told. — The  eggs  of  birds  become  hard,  those  of 
reptiles  soft,  by  boiling. 

2.  Why. — Because  it  would  be  inconvenient  to  try  the  ex- 
periment. 

3.  The  tortoise  is  covered  by  a  thick,  hard,  strong  shell ;  the 
tail  has  a  scaly  covering  of  its  own. 

3.  Because  a  picture  is  used  instead  of  a  specimen.  If  a 
specimen  shell  can  be  procured,  this  would  not  be  told. 

II. — What  must  be  developed. — All  that  can  be  discovered  by 
the  observation  or  the  reasoning  faculty. 

III. — Where  the  Observation  is  exercised. — The  tortoise  has 
a  small  head  like  that  of  a  serpent,  four  legs,  and  a  tail.  The 
shell  that  covers  the  back  has  thirteen  large  pieces  in  the  middle, 
and  twenty-three  smaller  pieces  round  the  margin.  The  head  and 
legs  are  without  armor. 

IY. — Where  the  Reasoning  Faculty  is  exercised. 

1.  Eggs  of  reptiles  become  soft  by  boiling.  The  eggs  of  the 
tortoise  become  soft  by  boiling,  therefore  we  infer  that  the  tortoise 
is  a  reptile. 

.2.  Provision  is  made  for  the  safety  of  the  young  of  all  classes 
of  animals.  The  tortoise  is  one  of  a  class  of  animals,  therefore 
provision  is  made  for  the  safety  of  its  young  (while  in  the  egg). 

3.  Animals  that  can  fight  possess  weapons  of  attack.     The 
tortoise  has  no  weapons  of  attack,  therefore  the  tortoise  cannot 
fight. 

4.  All  creatures  with  thick  horny  coverings  are  reptiles.    The 
crocodile  has  a  thick  horny  covering,  therefore  the  crocodile  is  a 
reptile. 

V. — Where  the  Conceptive  Faculty  is  exercised. — The  tortoise 
on  a  bright  summer  day.  The  tortoise  scraping  away  the  sand  to 
lay  its  eggs. 


COLOK. 

IN  the  First  Step  the  teacher  exercises  the  Perceptive  Facul- 
ties in  distinguishing  the  nine  Colors,  also  Black  and  White.  The 
Memory  is  exercised  in  learning  the  names  attached  to  these. 
Order  and  Taste  in  arranging  them. 

In  the  Second  Step  the  Conceptive  Faculty  is  exercised,  also 
a  more  minute  Perception. 

The  first  of  these,  in  recalling  the  ideas  of  Colors  previously 
seen.  The  second,  in  distinguishing  the  Tints  and  Shades  of  the 
nine  Colors.  Names  learned  as  before. 

In  the 'Third  Step,  the  Reasoning  Faculties  are  exercised  on 
the  relation  of  Colors  and  the  production  of  Hues.  As  a  matter 
of  course,  the  subject  being  Color,  the  Perceptive  Faculty  is  exer- 
cised still.  It  now  distinguishes  the  Hues,  which  are  named  as 
before. 

In  the  Fourth  Step,  Imagination  is  exercised,  with  the  Powers 
of  Analogy  and  Generalization. 


FIRST  STEP. 
Distinguishing  Prominent  Colors. 

1.  Lesson  given  to  the  Class.     Distinguishing  Blue  and  Yellow. 

I. — 1.  Point  to  the  yellow  pattern  on  the  board.'  Let  a  child 
pick  up  a  card  like  it ;  compare  the  yellow,  placing  the  card  be- 
side the  pattern.  Let  all  the  children  present  decide  whether  a 
correct  choice  has  been  made. 


46  COLOR. 

2.  Select  a  yellow  card  ;  call  on  a  child  to  find  the  correspond- 
ing color  amongst  all  those  exhibited  on  the  board.  The  other 
children  judge  and  decide  as  before. 

3  and  4.  Proceed  with  blue  as  with  yellow. 

II. — 1.  Exercises. — Select  two  yellow  and  two  blue  wafers ; 

Y. 
arrange  them  thus :   B.      B.     Let  a  child  place  other  blue  and 

yellow  wafers  in  corresponding  positions. 

Y  B 

2.  Place  the  wafers    -n*  y  •    ^  c^^  ^°  i^ate  as  before. 

3.  Thread  five  large  beads  thus— B.  Y.  B.  Y.  B.     A  child  to 
imitate. 

(As  many  children  as  possible  are  employed  in  this,  and  all  the 
rest  as  judges  whether  the  actions  are  correctly  performed.) 

The  members  of  the  class  draw  out  sketches  of  lessons  on 
Red  and  Green  or  on  Orange  and  Purple,  inventing  different  ex- 
ercises for  each  sketch. 

2.  Lesson  on  naming  principal  Colors. 

1.  Show  a  red  card.     Let  a  child  select  one  that  is  similar; 

say:     "  This  is  red."     This  is  to  be  repeated  by  the  children 

simultaneously  while  looking  at  the  card.    Let  another  child  select 

all  the  red  cards  that  are  to  be  found. 

*•  2  and  3.  Proceed  in  the  same  way  with  yellow  and  with  blue. 

4.  Point  rapidly  to  the  blue,   red,   and  yellow  patterns,  re- 
questing the  children  to  give  their  names  as  pointed  to. 

5.  Bid  a  child  place  a  yellow  card  on  the  table,  a  red  one  on 
the  desk,  and  a  blue  one  on  the  chair. 

6.  Select  3  children ;  one  to  find  examples  of  blue,  one  of  red, 
one  of  yellow ;  red  on  the  furniture  of  the  room,  or  the  dress  of  any 
one  present. 

7.  Let  a  -child  place  the  colors  on  a  line,  according  to  direc- 
tion, as  blue,  yellow,  red,  yellow,  blue. 

The  members  of  the  class  draw  out  sketches  according  to  the 
pattern,  on :  » 


COLOR. 


or 


Distinguishing  and  naming  Orange,  Green,  and  Purple. 
"  "  Citrine,  Russet,  and  Olive. 

3.  Lesson  on  Arrangement  of  Yellow,  Red,  and  Blue. 

1.  Let    the    children    select    all   the   yellow,  blue,  and   red 
cards. 

2.  Form  them  into  patterns  thus  : 

Y. 

&c.         &c. 

K.     -D. 

Y. 

3.  Let  the  children  imitate  these  patterns  •  when  they  can  do 
so  readily,  encourage  them  to  invent  new  ones,  selecting  the  colors 
in  order  to  cultivate  the  eye  to  harmonious  combinations. 

Till  the  subject  of  Color  is  better  understood,  the  general  teacher 
will  be  found  to  require  special  preparation  on  this  point.  The 
class  should  be  exercised  in  combining  colors  according  to  the  laws 
of  harmony  ;  as — 

1.  Harmony  of  Primaries  with  Secondaries. 
Yellow. 


Y. 

R.  B.  R 
Y. 


Purple,  Purple. 
Yellow. 


Red,  Green. 
Green,  Red. 


Orange,  Blue,  Blue,  Orange. 


2.  Harmonies  of  Secondaries  with  each  other. 


Orange. 
Purple,  Green,  Purple. 

" 


- 
ree> 


Purple. 

Orange.     Green.     Orange. 

Purple.     Green.       Orange.  Green.     Purple. 

Orange.     Green.     Orange. 

Purple. 


3.  Harmony  of  Secondaries  with  Tertiaries. 
Citrine,  Russet.     |   ^r        ~  .-,. 
Eusset,  Citrine.     |   Olive'  0ranSe'  Ollve' 

4.  Harmony  of  Tertiaries  with  Primaries. 


Citrine,  Olive. 
Olive,  Citrine. 


Citrine,  Red. 
Citrine,  Blue. 
Citrine,  Red. 


Yellow,  Russet. 
Russet,  Blue. 
Yellow,  Russet. 


Yellow,  Red,  Olive. 
Yellow,  Red,  Olive. 
Yellow,  Red,  Olive. 


48  COLOK. 

These  will  suffice  for  examples;  Class  continue  to  form  pat- 
terns with — 

5.  Citrine,  Russet,  and  Olive. 

6.  Black,  Red,  and  Olive. 

7.  Black,  Orange,  and  Green. 

8.  Black,  Red,  Yellow,  Orange,  and  Green. 

9.  Gray,  Red. 

10.  Gray,  Green. 

11.  Gray,  Red,  and  Green. 

12.  White  with  Blue. 

13.  White  with  Purple. 

4.  Lesson  given   to   develop  the   Perception  of  the  most   obvious 
Harmonies  of  Color. 

1.  Let  the  children  who  have  been  accustomed  to  combine 
colors,  select  those  they  wish  to  place  side  by  side.     After  their 
previous  practice  in  arrangement,  the  children  as  a  class  will  make 
good    combinations.      Should    an    individual  child  choose,  say  a 
green  and  blue,  take  a  similar  blue,  and  put  it  beside  an  orange. 
Let  all  decide  whether  blue  and  green  or  blue  and  orange  look 
better  together. 

Even  when  good  combinations  are  made,  as  purple  and  green, 
it  is'  sometimes  well  to  resort  to  the  plan  of  putting  a  red  with  the 
purple,  that  all  may  see  how  much  better  the  green  looks. 

2.  Colors  which  look  well  together,  to  be  placed  in  order  be- 
fflfc  the  children,  who  commit  to  memory  the  results  of  their  obser- 
vations and  comparisons,  as  facts,  and  without  reference  to  rules. 

Colors  arranged  thus — 

Yellow  and  Purple. 

Red  and  Green. 

Blue  and  Orange. 

Orange  and  Purple. 

Green  and  Purple. 

Purple  and  Green. 

Members  of  the  class  draw  up  sketches  on  the  Harmonies  of 
Black  with  Red,  &c. 

The  Harmonies  of  White  and  Gray,  &c.,  &c. 


COLOR.  49 

SECOND  STEP. 
I.  Remembering  Principal  Colors. 

1.  Lesson  on  the  Color  Blue. 

1.  To  make  sure  that  the  children  have  a  clear  idea  of  the 
color,  let  the  youngest  child  select  all  the  pieces  of  card  that  are 
blue,  while  the  rest  are  employed  in  finding  any  objects  of  a  blue 
color  in  the  room. 

2.  Lead  the  children  to  compare  these  blues  with  their  recol- 
lections   of  the    color   in  objects   not  just   now  visible.     "What 
they  see  overhead  is  blue.     "Whether  the  sky  is  always  blue. 
"What  other  colors  they  have  seen  it  show.     When  it  is  bluest. 
At  what  season  of  the  year,  &c.,  &c. 

3.  Let  the  children  name  flowers  that  are  blue,  as  harebells, 
speedwell,    forget-me-not.      Where    these    flourish ;    whether   in 
meadows  and  gardens,  or  on  heaths  or  roadsides. 

4.  Let  children  name  fruits  that  are  blue  ;  as  the  blueberry 
and  plum.     Whether  these  are  blue,  as  the  pattern,  is  blue.     They 
are  rather  blue.   "  Things  rather  blue  are  said  to  be  bluish."  (S.  R.) 

5.  Let  children  name  animals  that  have  any  part  blue. 

(a)  Birds :  Peacock,  kingfisher,  duck,  swallow,  jay. 

(Z>)  Insects :  Some  beetles,  dragon  fly,  house  fly.     These, 

why  called  bluebottles ;    children  to  say  what  parts 

are  blue. 

6.  Any  other  natural  objects  that  are  blue  or  bluish,  as  steel^ 
phosphorus. 

Summary. — Children  name  from  memory :    Things  that  have 
life  and  are  blue.     Things  (natural)  not  having  life  that  are  blue. 

2.  Lesson  on  the  Color  Yellow^ 

1.  Introduce  this  lesson  as  that  on  blue. 

2.  Lead  children  to  name  any  natural  objects  of  a  yellow  cplor, 
Write  all  the  names  on  the  board,  and  help  children  to  classify. 

(a)  What  birds  with  any  part  yellow  ?     Canaries,  yellow- 
hammer  ;  also  the  crest  of  the  cockatoo  is  yellow. 
3 


50  COLOR. 

(Z>)  "What  insects  are  in  part  yellow  ?     Some  butterflies, 
caterpillars,  wasps. 

(c)  What  flowers    contain  yellow?     Buttercups,   daisies, 

sunflowers,    &c.      What    part   of    each    is   yellow  ? 
When  leaves  are  yellow. 

(d)  What    fruits  ?      Lemons,    some    gooseberries,    green 

gages,  apricots,  apples.     Whether  these  are  yellow  as 
the  card  is  yellow.     They  are  yellowish. 

(e)  Other  natural  objects ;  as,  sulphur,  gold,  brass,  sand, 

straw,  ochre,  butter,  yelk  of  eggs,  sometimes  the  sky  ; 
when? 

3.  Summary. — Children  say  what  animal,  vegetable,  and  min- 
eral substances  are  wholly  or  in  part  yellow. 
Members  of  the  class  draw  out  sketches  on — 
Ked.  Orange  and  Purple. 

Green.         Citrine,  Russet,  and  Olive. 

The  following  lesson  presented  to  the  class  for  analysis  : 
The  class  find  where  observation  is  exercised  ;  where  memory, 
conception,  and  imagination  ;  where  judgment. 

3.    General  Lesson  on  Color. 

1.  Bring  before  the  children -a  variety  of  pebbles,  black,  white, 
and  colored.     Let  them  select  those  they  like  best.     Question  on 
the  principle  of  selection,  and  lead  them  to  discover  that  they  find 
pleasure  in  looking  at  colored  things. 

2.  Let  them    say  what    color  they  can  see  by  looking   up- 
ward ;  sky,  blue ;  clouds,  white,  black,  or  gray ;  sun,  moon,  and 
stars,  yellow.     The    rainbow,    red,    orange,  yellow,  green,  blue, 
purple. 

What  colors  they  can  see  in  the  fields ;  grass  which  is  green. 
Trees  with  green,  red,  or  yellow  leaves,  and  brown  stems. 
Flowers,  which?  Let  each  name  a  flower  of  a  different  color,  to  show 
that  these  are  of  all  colors.  What  they  see  when  they  stand  on 
the  shore.  Yellow  sand ;  white,  green,  or  black  rocks ;  green- 
ish sea. 

What  living  things  show  the  brightest  colors  ?    Tiger,  leopard, 


COLOR.  51 

redbreast,  bullfinch,  peacock,  macaw,  kingfisher,  butterflies,  lady- 
birds, &c.  What  parts  of  themselves  are  colored?  Hair, 
eyes,  cheeks,  lips.  We  see  colors  wherever  we  look — the  earth- 
is  full  of  them. 

3.  Lead  the  children  to  imagine  the  trees,  flowers,  and  objects  in 
general,  all  of  one  hue,  as  white,  drab,  gray.  Let  them  trace  the 
effect  of  such  a  state  of  things  on  their  minds.  It  would  make 
people  feel  dull.  Bright  colors  make  us  feel  cheerful.  (S.  R.)  Sup- 
pose a  gray  rosebush,  trained  against  the  wall  of  a  gray  house, 
springing  from  a  gray  soil,  under  a  gray  sky,  all  the  surrounding 
objects  being  gray.  Were  they  sent  to  gather  it,  how  near  must 
they  come  before  they  would  see  it  ?  "  Color  helps  us  to  distin- 
guish objects."  (S.  R.) 

Draw  a  similar  picture,  representing  every  object  as  red  ;  how 
painfully  exciting  !  as  blue  ;  how  cold  and  forbidding  !  Refer  to 
the  effect  of  green ;  soothing,  cheerful,  refreshing.  Whether  it 
would  be  better  if  everything  out  of  doors  were  green,  and 
why  not.  ^ 

Who  has  furnished  this  earth  with  such  a  variety  of  colors  ? 
Who  has  formed  us  to  enjoy  them  ?  What  we  learn  of  God. 

This  lesson  requires  no  summary.  Itself  is  a  summary  of  the 
previous  lessons. 

II.  Distinguishing  and  Naming  Tints  and  Shades. 

Minute  and  accurate  perception  and  power  of  comparison  are 
cultivated.  Yocabulary  extended. 

1.  Lesson  on  Tints  and  Shades  of  Blue. 

1.  Let  the  children  decide  on  the  Color  that  shall  be  the  sub« 
ject  of  this  lesson.  Suppose  them  to  say  blue.  Produce  varie- 
ties of  this.  Let  them  recognize  each  as  blue.  Let  a  child  select 
the  bluest  of  the  flues,  that  which  comes  nearest  to  the  color  of 
the  sky  in  summer.  If  practicable  this  selection  should  be  made 
out  of  doors,  or  at  the  window.  When  azure  is  found,  compare 
other  blue  or  bluish  objects  with  it.  Children  will  find  nothing 
bluer  than  azure.  Tell  them  that  because  in  judging  of  the  blue- 


52  COLOR. 

ness  of  objects  we  go  by  this,  it  is  called  standard  blue.     "  The 
bluest  blue  is  called  standard  blue."     (S.  R.) 

2.  Direct  attention  to  the  remaining  varieties.     Children  to 
decide  which  of  these  look  more  like  the  night,  which  more  like 
the  day.     Get  the  terms  light  and  dark.     Give  the  terms  tint  and 
shade.     (S.  R.)      "  The  lighter  blues  are    called  tints,  and  the 
darker  blues  are  called  shades." 

3.  Exercises. 

(a)  Let  the  children  place  the  blues  in  order,  from  tint  to 

shade  and  from  shade  to  tint. 

(£)  Let  a  child  find  the  darkest  shade  and  the  lightest  tint. 
(c)  Let  a  child  find  the  tint  and  shade  nearest  to  the 

standard. 

4.  Show  how  convenient  it  would  be  if,  instead  of  calling  for 
the  darkest  shade,  or  the  tint  nearest  to  the  standard,  we  had 
names  for  the  varieties.     "Who  would  like  to  learn  their  names  ? 
"Who  can  mention  something  out  of  doors  the  color  of  the  stand- 
ard (the  sky)  ?     The  name  of  the  standard  blue  is  sky  blue,  or 
azure.     (S.  R.)     (W.  B.)    The  name  of  the  lightest  tint  is  hyaline, 
or  water  Blue,  the  color  of  running  water.     The  name  of  the  tint 
next  to  azure  is  watchet,  from  an  old  name  which  meant  weak 
blue. 

The  name  of  the  shade  next  to  azure  is  lazuline,  from  lazuli, 
the  mineral  producing  that  color. 

The  name  of  the  darkest  blue  is  indigene,  from  indigo.  (S.  R. 
after  each  name  which  is  written  on  the  board  as  given.) 

5.  The  children  having  learned  the  names,  touch  the  cards 
when  named,  and  name  them  when  touched,  irregularly,  and  in 
order : 

Hyaline,  "Watchet,  Azure,  Lazuline,  Indigene. 

I 

2.  Lesson  on  Tints  and  Shades  of  Red. 

1.  Let  the  youngest  child  select  the  reddest  of  the  reds,  or  the 
standard  red.  If  there  be  any  hesitation,  compare  with  a  piece 
of  red  coral.  The  red  like  this  to  be  the  standard.  Let  an- 
other child  point  out  the  tints,  a  third  the  shades,  a  fourth  arrange 
them  in  order. 


COLOR.  53 

2.  Refer  to  the  object  with  which  the  standard  was  compared, 
or  now  make  the  comparison.     The  standard,  being  like  coral,  is 
called  coraline.     Let  the  children,  if  they  can,  name  any  object 
like  the  shade  next  to  coraline.     It  is  like  blood.     It  is  some- 
times called  blood  red,  sometimes  Venetian  red.     We  will  call  it 
venetia.      Let  children  find  an  object  like  the  darkest  shade ; 
some  roses,  called  black  roses,  are  of  this  color.     It  is    called 
morone,  which  means  black  red.     Children  find  the  tint  nearest 
the  standard.     They  will  say  it  is  pink.     It  is  a  full  pink,  the 
color  of  a  rose.     We  will  call  it  rosine.     There  is  one  tint  more. 
There  is  something  about  themselves  of  the  same  color.     It  is  flesh 
color.     We  will  call  it  carneline. 

3.  Children  name  the  shades,  tints,  standard,   as  called  on. 
Give  the  meanings,  &c.,  of  the  names.     Say  which  color  they 
like  best ;  which  they  would  prefer  for  a  dress  in  winter ;  which 
for  a  dress  in  summer,  &c.     Name  the  colors  in  order  : 

Carneline,  Rosine,  Coraline,  Yenetia,  Morone. 
Class  draw  up  sketches  on — 

Tints  and  shades  of  Yellow. 
"  Green. 

Purple  and  Orange. 
"  "  Citrine,  Russet,  and  Olive. 

THIRD    STEP. 

Distinguishing  Colors  as  Primary,  Secondary,  and  Tertiary.    Also 
Hues  of  Color. 

1.  Lesson  on  Production  of  Secondary  Colors. 
1.  Produce  the  colors  yellow,  red,  and  blue.  Desire  the 
children  to  name  other  colors,  as  purple  and  orange.  Show 
orange,  and  let  children  say  whether  it  most  resembles  yellow, 
red,  or  blue.  (Yellow.)  Show  purple.  Children  will  decide 
whether  this  most  resembles  red  or  blue.  Tell  the  children  that 
all  colors  bear  some  resemblance  to  yellow  or  red  or  blue  ;  be- 
cause all  other  colors  are  derived  from  these.  These  are  the  first 
or  primary  colors.  (S.  R.)  "  Yellow,  red,  and  blue  are  the 
primary  colors." 


54  COLOR. 

2.  Mix  yellow  ochre  and  indigo  blue.     Let  the  children  note 
the  operation  and  the  result.     (S.  R.)     "  Green  is  a  mixture  of 
yellow  and  blue."     Proceed  in  the  same  way  with  yellow  and 
red   (carmine),  producing  orange ;    and  with  blue  and  red,  pro- 
ducing purple.      By  reference  to  the  term  primary,  draw  from 
the  children  the  name  that  will  characterize  this  second  set  of 
colors,  viz.,    secondary.     (S.  R.)     "  Orange,    green,  and   purple 
are  secondary  colors." 

3.  "Write  on  the  board  the  names  of  the  secondary  colors,  as 
dictated  by  the  children. 

Yellow  +  Blue  =  Green. 
Yellow  +  Red  =  Orange. 
Blue     +  Red  =  Purple. 
S.  R.,  till  committed  to  memory,    j 

Class  draw  up  sketch  on  the  Production  of  Tertiary  Colors 
from  Secondary." 

2.  Lesson  on  Hues  of  Color. 

1.  Take  yellow  and  blue  pigments.     Before  mixing,  call  at- 
tention to  the  proportions  of  yellow  and  blue — about  half  as  much 
yellow  as  blue.     Tell  children  that  were  these  substances  per- 
fectly free  from  earthy  particles,  we  should  take  exactly  3  parts 
of  yellow  to  8  of  blue. 

S.  R.     "Yellow  is  to  blue  as  3  is  to  8." 

2.  Let  children  say  how  this  proportion  might  be  varied  :  we 
would  take  more  yellow  and  less  blue.     Let  them  judge  of  the 
effect  this  would  have  in  the  product.     The  green  produced  would 
be  yellowish  green.     Perform  the  experiment,  conforming  to  or 
correcting  their  judgments. 

Tell  them  that  this  green  is  called,  not  a  tint,  nor  a  shade,  but 
a  hue  of  green. 

How  else  the  proportions  might  be  altered :  we  might  take 
more  blue  and  less  yellow  than  at  first.  The  effect,  this  would 
have  on  the  product,  inferred,  and  the  experiment  tried  as  before. 
We  have  now  bluish  green,  another  hue. 

Take  yellow  and  red,  directing  attention  to  the  proportions, 
which  are  as  3  to  5.  Additional  red  will  produce  red  orange, 


COLOR.  55 

and  additional  yellow  pale  orange.  Children  should  first  see  if 
they  can  infer  the  results,  and  then  find  them  by  experiment. 

Take  red  and  blue,  proportions  5  to  8.     Proceed  as  before. 

3.  Children  led  to  explain  how  the  "  Hues  of  Secondary  Colors 
are  formed  by  an  extra  proportion  of  one  of  the  Primaries,  which 
compose  the  Secondary."  (S.  R.) 

3.  Lesson  on  Hues  of  Red. 

1.  Produce  varieties  of  red.     Let  children  select  and  name 
those  that  they  know.     Standard,  tints,  and  shades. 

2.  Let  them  proceed  to  classify  the  hues  of  red,  putting  them 
into  two  groups.     They  will  at  once  separate  the  yellowish  reds 
from  the  bluish  reds.     Let  them  try  to  account  for  the  difference 
in  IIMG.     Should  they  fail  in  doing  this,  produce  an  orange  card. 
Let  them  point  out  the  set  of  reds  which  come  nearest  to  it,  and 
account  for  the  resemblance.     These  reds  have  yellow  in  them. 
Children  to  judge  of  the  color  which  tinges  the  remaining  set  of 
reds.     These  reds  have  blue  in  them.     "  Some  hues  of  red  are 
tinged  with  yellow,  and  some  with  blue."    (S.  R.) 

3.  Children  arrange  the  yellow  reds  in  order,  and  learn  their 
names.     The    deepest  scarlet ;    the  next  vermilion ;    something 
the  third  is  like  :  the  flesh  of  salmon.     It  is  called  salmon  color,  or 
salmonine. 

Children  arrange  the  blues.  The  darkest  and  bluest  of  the 
reds  is  called  crimson.  The  next  magenta,  from  a  battle  which 
was  fought  about  the  time  this  particular  hue  came  into  fashion. 
The  last  peachine.  Why  ?  It  is  the  color  of  a  peach  blossom. 

4.  Children  find  examples  of  any  of  the  hues ;  are  exercised 
on  the  names.     They  define  tint,  shade,  and  hue,  thus : 

A  tint  of  Red  is  Red  lighter  than  the  standard. 
A  shade       "  "    darker  than  the  standard. 

A  hue  "    tinctured  with  some  other  color. 

At  the  close  of  the  lesson,  the  colors  are  thus  arranged : 

Salmonine.     Vermilion.     Scarlet. 

Carneline.     Rosine.     Coraline.     Yenetia.     Morone. 

Peachine.     Magenta.     Crimson. 


56  COLOR. 

Class  draw  up  lesson  on  hues  of  yellow ;  hues  of  blue. 
Also  on  hues  of  green  and  purple. 

Leading  the  children  to  see,  as  a  general  rule,  that  a  hue  of  a 
primary  color  is  produced  by  a  tincture  of  some  other  color. 

4.  Lesson  given  on  Hues  of  Black. 

1.  Bring  before  the  children  several  black  objects  :  a  piece  of 
jet,  a  raven's  wing,  some  rooks'   feathers,   a  piece  of  black  silk 
which  has  been  worn,  and  some  writing  fluid. 

Let  them  select  the  standard  black  in  the  piece  of  jet.     Give 
the  term  jettine. 

Let  them  examine  the  other  objects,  and  pronounce  what  hues 
of  black  they  exemplify.     The  wing  is  bluish  black ;  the  rooks' 
feathers  are  purplish  black ;  the  silk  is  rusty  or  brownish  black ; 
the  writing  fluid  is  greenish  black. 
"Write  on  the  board — 

Jettine  or  standard  Black. 
Hue  of  greenish  Black. 
"        purplish  Black. 
"        bluish  Black. 
"        brownish  Black. 

2.  Children  mention  black  objects,  and  define  their  hue. 
Note  the  difference  between  jet  black  hair  and  raven  hair. 
Summary. — From  the  board. 

Class  draw  out  sketches  on  hues  of  white  and  gray. 

5.  Lesson  on  White  and  Black,  as  representing  Light  and 
Darkness. 

1.  Ask  the  children  to  tell  the  color  of  light.     "It  has  no 
color  ;  light  is  colorless."    (S.  K.)    What  color  will  best  represent 
it  ?     (S.  R)     "  White  is  the  representative  of  light." 

2.  Present  a  prism,  and  direct  attention  to  the  yellow,  red,  and 
blue  rays.     Explain,  in  the  simplest  language,  that  this  instrument 
is  able  to  divide  the    compound   colorless  rays,   and  show  the 
primary  colored  rays  that  compose  them.     Children  to  say  what 


COLOR.  57 

colored  rays  each  colorless  ray  must  contain.     (S.  R.)     "  Light  is 
produced  by  the  blending  of  red,  yellow,  and  blue  rays." 

3.  Children  to  judge  of  the  probable  result  of  mixing  red, 
yellow,    and    blue   pigments;    to    say  in  what   proportion   they 
should  be  mixed. 

Perform  the  experiment,  and  let  them  state  the  result.  Get 
or  give  the  reason.  (S.  R.)  "  The  mixture  of  red,  yellow,  and 
blue  pigments  will  not  produce  white,  on  account  of  the  opaque 
and  earthy  substances  all  pigments  contain." 

4.  Children  to  say  what  is  caused  by  the  absence  of  light 
— darkness.     How  they  would  represent  it.     (S.  R.)    "  Black  rep- 
resents darkness." 

5.  Lead  the  children  to  see  that  "  as  light  (or  white)  is  the 
blending  of  all  colors,  so  darkness  (or  black)  is  the  presence  of  no 
color."     (S.  R.) 

Summary. — Repetitions  of  S.  R.'s. 

Class  draw  up  sketch  of  lesson  on  the  Rainbow,  under  the  fol- 
lowing heads : 

I. — Appearance,  form,  colors  ;  their  arrangement.     Why  the 
secondary  colors  alternate  with  the  primary. 
II. — Formation  of  the  rainbow. 
III. — The  rainbow  as  the  sign  of  a  covenant. 


FOURTH  STEP. 

1.    Consideration  of  Colors  as  Emblematic. 
The  children  are  exercised  in  drawing  analogies. 

I. — Speak  of  spring.  By  reference  to  the  cold  winter  season  past, 
and  to  the  bright  long  days,  the  summer  flowers,  and  the  harvest 
we  expect,  lead  the  children  to  look  on  spring  as  the  time  of 
promise.  Refer  to  the  young  grass — the  budding  leaves  ;  contrast 
the  delicate  green  of  these  with  the  sere  brown  of  winter.  How 
we  hope  to  see  the  trees,  the  fields  look.  Tell  the  children,  that 
3* 


58  COLOR. 

because  light  green  is  the  spring  color,  people  have  taken  it  for 
an  emblem  of  Hope. 

II. — Refer  to  the  sky — its  appearance  at  different  times ;  some- 
times cloudy.  What  the  children  would  see  were  the  clouds  dis- 
persed. Always  beyond  these*  is  the  bright,  changeless  blue. 
Refer  to  the  pain  and  sorrow  which  we  all  must  endure,  and  to 
that  better  place  where  tears  shall  be  wriped  away.  "When  we 
think  of  Heaven,  at  what  object  do  we  like  to  look  ?  Because 
blue  puts  us  in  mind  of  Heaven,  it  is  taken  as  an  emblem  of  Faith. 
Write  on  the  slate  the  different  colors.  Children  to  give  their 
ideas  of'  the  attributes  these  colors  will  best  represent.  Supply 
deficiencies  and  correct  errors,  till  the  writing  on  the  slate  ap- 
pears thus : 

Green — Hope. 

Blue— Faith. 

White — Innocence  and  candor. 

Black — Sorrow  or  mourning. 

Yellow — Desolation,  despair. 

Red — Military  glory,  anger. 

Purple,   or )    . 

Crimson      f   Royal  state. 

Children  to  find  reasons  why  the  color  should  be  taken  as  the 
emblem  of  the  attribute.  For  white,  refer  to  the  snow.  How 
beautiful — how  easily  soiled,  yet  how  plainly  showing  the  least 
stain ! 

For  black,  when  people  wear  it."  Why  they  prefer  black  to 
colors.  Of  what  it  puts  us  in  mind. 

For  yellow,  when  the  landscape  looks  yellow  ;  with  what  feel- 
ings we  view  it.  Why  ?  So  proceed  with  the  other  colors. 

Children  must  be  told  that  purple  is  taken  as  an  emblem  of 
dignity,  from  its  association  with  the  dress  of  kings.  At  first  it 
was  worn  by  the  Greek  magnates  only,  on  account  of  the  rarity 
of  the  mollusk  that  produced  the  dye.  Then  it  became  an  emblem 
of  State. 

It  might  also  be  explained,  that  in  China  the  royal  and  noble 
color  is  yellow ;  and  why  ?  viz.,  the  sun  appears  of  a  yellow 


COLOR.  59 

color,  and  the  court  of  Pekin  is  supposed  to  be  modelled  on  the 
plan  of  the  court  of  Heaven. 

III. — Summary. — Teacher  names  the  colors;  children  say 
what  they  emblematize.  The  same  thing  reversed. 

2.  Lesson  on  White  as  an  Emblem. 

I. — Children  to  mention  objects  of  the  purest  whiteness ;  as 
snow,  a  lily,  ivory,  white  marble,  swan's  down. 

Exercise  the  conceptive  faculty.  How  dazzling  the  new-fallen 
snow;  how  different  to  the  same  snow  when  the  thaw  com- 
mences, arid  it  shows  black  footsteps !  How  fair  and  regal  the 
fresh  white  lily ;  how  different  it  looks  when  it  displays  faded  and 
yellowish  petals !  Refer  in  the  same  way  to  the  plumage  of  the 
swan  when  wild ;  to  ivory  and  marble  when  stained.  In  which 
condition  are  these  objects  most  pleasing  to  the  eye?  Thus  de- 
velop the  idea  of  the  beauty  of  these  objects,  as  consisting  in 
their  hue. 

II. — Tell  the  children  that  there  are  some  things  more  beautiful 
than  any  snow,  lilies,  or  ivory.  That  these  are  not  outward,  but 
inward  things. 

Draw  the  picture  of  a  child  always  gentle  in  his  manners  to 
the  young,  and  respectful  to  his  elders  ;  kind  in  his  actions,  al- 
ways ready  to  help  and  oblige ;  honest  in  his  dealings  with  his 
playfellows,  faithful  in  his  duties  at  school  and  at  home.  How 
lovely  a  character  !  To  what  natural  object  or  quality  can  we 
compare  this  ?  "White.  What  if  the  child  in  question  one  day 
commit  a  manifest  fault ;  what  if  he  be  found  in  a  lie,  or  even  in 
a  violent  passion  ?  If  we  compare  the  former  character  to  white- 
ness, to  what  may  we  compare  his  fault  ?  To  a  dark  stain,  sully- 
ing the  pure  whiteness.  (W.  B.)  "  White  is  the  emblem  of 
Innocence." 

III. — Children  to  say  at  what  times  people  usually  like  to  weai 
white.  At  weddings,  on  holidays,  Sundays.  How  people  feel  on 
holidays.  How  they  ought  to  feel  on  Sundays.  The  Lord's  day 
is  a  festival — not  a  common,  but  a  sacred  one.  Refer  to  Eccles.  ix. 


60  COLOR. 

8,  explaining  that  in  ancient  times  men  as  well  as  women  often 
wore  white  garments. 

Tell  them  that  the  ancient  Greeks  not  only  dressed  for  feasts 
in  this  way,  but  were  in  the  habit  of  marking  days  of  joy  or 
triumph  on  their  almanacs  with  a  white  stone,  doubtless  of  the 
nature  of  chalk.  (Rev.  ii.  17.)  Children  to  name  the  second  thing 
that  white  is  the  emblem  of— "-Festivity."  (W.  B.) 

IV. — Refer  to  flags  of  different  nations  ;  the  use  of  flags  ;  the 
colors  seen  in  them.  Red,  white  and  blue  in  the  stars  and  stripes, 
in  the  tricolor  of  France,  and  the  Union  jack.  The  Italians  have 
chosen  a  tricolor  of  red,  green,  and  white.  Other  of  the  Euro- 
pean nations  have  yellow  and  black.  The  Turks  hoist  a  green 
flag.  The  standard  of  each  nation  floats  on  its  own  territory,  and 
in  time  of  war  on  others'  territory ;  but  when,  in  such  a  case, 
armies  want  to  communicate  peacefully  one  with  another,  they  lay 
the  national  flag  aside,  and  take  a  white  flag,  called  a  flag  of  truce. 
Explain  truce.  A  soldier  carrying  such  a  flag  as  this  may  go 
into  the  centre  of  the  enemy's  camp  ;  the  flag  shows  that  he  comes 
with  a  peaceful  message ;  none  will  harm  him.  "  White  is  the 
emblem  of  Peace."  (W.  B.) 

V. — White  emblematizes  one  thing  more.  The  Bible  tells  us 
that  the  inhabitants  of  Heaven  are  clothed  in  white.  It  speaks 
of  heavenly  armies  riding  on  white  horses.  (Rev.  vii.  9  ;  and  xix. 
8  and  14.)  What  kind  of  place  is  Heaven?  What  kind  of 
people  its  inmates  ?  When  these  are  described  as  being  clothed 
in  white,  of  what  is  white  the  emblem  ?  "  Of  Purity,  or  Holiness." 
(W.B.) 

The  Bible  tell  us  of  the  high  priest  of  the  Jews,  the  type  of 
Christ :  once  a  year  he  went  into  the  most  holy  place  to  make 
intercession  for  the  people ;  and  then  he  wore  white  garments 
only — he  represented  a  holy  advocate.  The  Bible  tells  of  a  great 
white  throne,  set  for  the  judgment,  where  the  dead,  small  and 
great,  shall  stand  before  God.  The  throne  is  a  holy  throne.  Refer 
the  children  to  Rev.  iii.  4  and  5,  as  a  subject  of  prayer  for  the 
evening.  They  will  repeat  what  white  emblematizes,  and  give 
examples  in  each  case. 


COLOR.  61 

Summary. — From  the  board : 

White  is  the  emblem  of  Innocence. 

White  is  the  emblem  of  Festivity 

White  is  the  emblem  of  Peace. 

White  is  the  emblem  of  Purity  and  Holiness. 

Class  exercised  in  drawing  out  sketches — 

1.  On  Black,  as  emblematic  of  Sorrow. 

"  " .  Despair 

"  "  Guilt. 

"  "  Death. 

2.  On  emblematic  Mourning  : 

The  Chinese  wear  White.     Why  ? 
"    Turks  wear  Blue  or  Violet.     Why  ? 
"    English  and  Americans  wear  Black.     Why  ? 

3.  On  Railway  Signals  : 

White  means  Safety.  Why  ? 
Green  "  Caution.  Why? 
Red  "  Danger.  Why? 

4.  On  common  Flowers  as  Symbols  : 

Rose,  "^ 

Lily,  Showing  how  much  their 

Violet,  >  symbolical  meaning  depends 

Harebell,  on  their  color. 

Forget-me-not.  J 

5.  On  Color  as  indicating  Flavor.    According  to  Linnaeus,  red 
indicates  an  acid  or  sour  taste.     As  examples — cranberries,  bar- 
berries, currants,  mulberries ;  herbs  that  turn  red  toward  autumn, 
as  sorrel  and  bloodydock. 

Green  indicates  an  alkaline  taste.  As  examples — leaves  and 
unripe  fruit. 

Yellow  a  bitter  taste ;  as  gentian,  aloes,  celandine. 

White  indicates  a  sweet  taste ;  as  white  currants,  white  cher- 
ries, apples,  sugar,  &c. 

Black  indicates  a  nauseous,  disagreeable  taste ;  as  deadly  night- 
shade, sumac. 

6.  On  Colors  as  Sacred  Emblems : 

In  the  tabernacle  :  In  the  garments  of  the  high  priest. 


FORM. 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS. 

THAT  "the  child  sees  in  nature  objects,  not  lines,"  is  a  truth 
which  nobody  will  attempt  to  deny.  On  these  objects  are  seen, 
on  closer  examination,  some  common  properties  belonging  to  form 
and  outline.  That  which  strikes  the  eye  most,  is  the  size  and 
shape  of  the  object.  Its  size  is  dependent  on  its  length,  breadth, 
and  thickness,  which  properties  are  treated  in  the  chapter  on 
Size.  The  shape  or  form  of  an  object  is  chiefly  visible  on  its 
surface,  which,  together  with  its  divisions,  or  faces,  will  claim 
most  of  the  child's  attention  in  the  First  Step. 

The  principal  feature  of  the  First  Step  is,  that  it  makes  the  chil- 
dren examine  and  describe  forms  on  the  objects  themselves ;  that 
it  avoids  technical  names  and  definitions  as  much  as  possible,  and 
makes  but  very  few  classifications.  In  the  Second  Step,  begin- 
ning with  the  directions  of  the  straight  line,  the  child  is  led  to 
perceive  and  describe  elements  of  form,  that  have  been  abstracted 
from  the  objects,  and  are  represented  by  lines  and  figures.  The 
Third  Step  describes  and  classifies  solids. 


FIRST    STEP. 

Development  of  Common  Properties  belonging  to 

Surface. 

1.  Lesson  on  the  Surface  and  Faces  of  Solids. 

The  teacher  presents  to  the  class  an  object — say  a  square  box. 
Tell  me,  which  is  the  outside  ?     Which  is  the  inside  ?     Which  is 


FORM. FIRST    STEP.  63 

the  bottom  ?  Which  is  the  cover,  or  lid  ?  "Where  are  its  sides  ? 
We  will  turn  the  box  over ;  now,  where  is  the  top  of  the  box  ? 
Where  the  bottom  ?  Tell  me  if  you  can  see  any  difference  be- 
tween them.  Then  what  can  you  say  of  the  parts  of  the  out- 
side ?  They  are  alike.  We  will  call  the  outside,  surface,  and  the 
parts  of  the  surface,  faces.  What  do  we  call  the  outside  ?  What 
do  we  call  the  parts  of  the  outside  ? 

The  teacher  may  then  show  them  a  regular  solid — a  cube,  for 
instance,  and  ask,  What  do  you  call  this  ?  A  block.  Show  me 
its  top  ;  its  sides ;  its  bottom.  I  will  turn  the  block  over :  now 
show  me  the  top  ;  bottom ;  sides.  How  many  faces  has  this 
block  ?  Let  one  child  point  out  one  of  its  faces,  another  a  differ- 
ent face,  &c.,  till  all  are  pointed  out. 

We  will  now  repeat  what  we  have  learned.  The  outside  of 
an  object  is  called  its  surface.  The  parts  of  the  surface  are  called 
faces.  Show  me  the  faces  of  the  box ;  of  this  book ;  of  the 
bookcase  ;  of  your  slates,  &c. 

The  teacher  may  now  show  the  class  another  object — say  a 
sphere — and  call  upon  one  of  the  children  to  come  and  cover  the 
surface  with  his  hands.  How  many  parts  has  the  surface  ?  Do 
you  know  the  name  of  this  object  ?  (If  the  children  call  it  a  ball, 
the  name  may  for  the  moment  be  retained.)  Here  is  another 
object  (a  cone).  Show  me  its  surface.  Move  your  hand  over 
the  whole  surface.  How  many  parts  are  there  to  this  surface  ? 
What  do  we  call  these  parts?  Faces.  Let  us  compare  the 
faces  of  the  objects  before  us.  If  I  move  this  block,  will  it  roll  ? 
Why  not  ?  Eight ;  because  its  faces  are  flat.  Instead  of  flat, 
Bay  plane.  But  if  I  move  this  object  (the  sphere),  what  will  it 
do  ?  Why  will  it  roll  ?  Because  its  surface  is  round.  Teacher 
places  the  cone  on  its  base,  and  asks,  Now  will  this  object  roll  ? 
Why  not  ?  Teacher  places  the  cone  on  its  side,  and  moving  it, 
asks,  And  now  what  can  you  say  it  does  ?  It  rolls.  And  why  ? 
Now  repeat,  An  object  may  have  a  plane  or  a  round  surface.  It 
may  also  have  plane  and  round  faces.  Now  show  me  objects  in 
the  room  that  have  a  plane  surface  ;  others  which  have  a  round 
surface  ;  others  which  have  both  plane  and  round  faces.  (The 
cylindrical  and  conical  objects  belong  to  this  class.) 


64:  FORM. FIRST   STEP. 

2.    On  the  Edges  and  Corners  of  Solids ;    the  Idea  of  Straight 
and  Curved  developed. 

The  teacher  again  presents  the  block,  and  asks  a  child  to 
point  out  two  of  its  faces  that  meet  each  other.  She  bids  him 
further  to  move  his  finger  along  between  them.  (Presenting 
the  blade  of  a  knife.)  Where  do  the  faces  of  this  blade  meet? 
Yes  ;  at  the  edge.  Now  let  us  call  the  meeting  of  two  faces  an 
edge.  What  is  an  edge?  Show  me  the  edges  of  this  block. 
How  many  are  there?  Where  do  they  meet?  What  do 
you  call  this  part  of  a  table-top  ?  Yes,  a  corner ;  edges  meet 
in  a  corner.  Eepeat  this.  How  many  corners  are  there  in 
this  block?  How  many  edges  do  you  see  in  this  object  (a 
sphere)  ?  How  many  corners  ?  How  many  edges  in  this  object 
(a  cone)  ?  How  many  corners  ?  We  might  in  the  latter  case 
call  that  one  corner  at  the  top  its  point.  Point  out  the  edges  and 
corners  of  this  table  ;  of  this  book  ;  of  this  tumbler,  &c. 

Now  move  your  finger  along  one  of  the  edges  of  the  block, 
and  now  on  the  edge  of  this  solid  (the  cone).  Did  you  move  ex- 
actly in  the  same  way  ?  Who  can  tell  me  the  difference  ? 

Although  the  children  may  already  have  both  the  idea  and 
names  of  straight  and  curved,  yet  we  may  seize  this  opportunity 
of  illustrating  one  of  the  most  important  elements,  or  rather  the 
element  of  form,  by  means  of  drawing.  For  this  purpose  the 
teacher  draws  distinctly  and  correctly  a  straight  line  and  a  circu- 
lar curve  on  the  blackboard,  and  gives  them  the  names  of  straight 
and  curved  lines.  She  then  asks  which  of  these  lines  repre- 
sents an  edge  of  the  cube,  and  which  of  them  the  edge  of  the 
cone. 

If  any  further  definition  of  straight  and  curved  is  required,  the 
teacher  may  say,  The  straight  line  never  changes  its  direction, 
while  the  curved  line  is  continually  changing  its  direction.  The 
word  "  direction"  m-ay  be  illustrated  by  the  teacher,  in  moving 
from  one  point  in  the  room  to  another.  By  going  directly,  or  the 
shortest  way,  from  one  point  to  the  other,  she  describes  a  straight 
line  ;  on  the  contrary,  if  she  gradually  turns  to  the  right  or  left 
of  this  line,  and  then  returns  to  it  again,  she  has  been  out  of  the 


FOKM. FIRST   STEP.  65 

straight  line  ;  and  if  her  motion  was  traced  on  the  floor,  it  would 
be  by  a  curved  line. 

The  teacher  must  make  some  other  curves  on  the  board,  be- 
side the  circle  and  the  arc,  in  order  that  the  idea  of  curve  may 
become  somewhat  generalized. 

She  lastly  requires  the  children  to  name  and  point  out  objects, 
the  edges  of  which  describe  a  straight  line ;  others,  of  which  the 
edges  are  curved ;  others,  which  have  edges  both  straight  and  curved. 

It  may  be  well  for  the  children,  as  well  as  the  teacher,  to 
know  that  in  copying  objects  from  nature,  we  draw  what  is  called 
their  outline  ;  this  outline  is  sometimes  analogous  to  the  edges  of 
the  solid,  which  form  the  boundary  of  our  view.  But  in  some 
solids,  as  the  sphere,  the  cone,  the  cylinder,  the  outline  does  not 
always  coincide  with  the  edges,  but  is  visible  on  the  rounded 
surface. 

3.    On  Angles  and  Enclosed  Spaces. 

They  are  classified  and  named  according  to  the  number  of  their 
sides.  The  teacher  might  here  ask  the  children  whether  they 
think  they  could  enclose  a  space  with  one  straight  line,  or,  to  ren- 
der the  case  more  obvious,  with  one  straight  stick?  Whether 
they  think  it  could  be  done  with  one  curved  line  ?  The  children 
may  suggest  a  circle,  or  an  ellipse. 

The  teacher  then  may  continue  the  exercise  by  asking  whether 
a  space  could  be  surrounded  by  two  straight  lines  (to  be  illustrated 
by  sticks  placed  in  the  form  of  a  right  angle).  On  how  many 
sides  is  this  space  surrounded  ?  "Where  is  it  open  ?  The  teacher 
may  make  a  drawing  of  this  combination,  and  tell  them  that  this 
is  called  an  angle,  and  that  an  angle  may  be  more  or  less  open. 
(Teacher  changes  the  position  of  the  sticks  to  illustrate  this.) 

QUESTIONS. — Show  me  some  angles  on  the  blackboard? 
Which  is  the  most  shut  ?  Which  is  more  open  ?  Which  is  the 
most  open  ? 

Next  require  the  children  to  find  out  whether,  with  three 
straight  lines,  a  space  can  be  entirely  surrounded  or  shut  in,  and 
to  show  it  by  arranging  sticks  on  the  floor.  This  done,  a  triangle 
is  formed,  which  the  teacher  copies,  and  to  which  she  gives  the 


66  FORM. FIRST   STEP. 

name,  letting  the  children  repeat :  A  space  which  is  enclosed  by 
three  sides  is  called  a  three-sided  figure,  or  triangle. 

(N.  B. — The  teacher  has  to  tell  them,  that  in  speaking  of  en- 
closed spaces,  we  use  the  word  side,  instead  of  line.) 

After  this,  the  children  are  required  to  find  out  how  a  space 
can  be  enclosed  by  four  straight  lines,  which  the  teacher  copies 
on  the  blackboard,  representing  not  only  the  square,  but,  if  she 
chooses,  the  rhomb,  rhomboid,  trapezoid,  trapezium,  and  oblong, 
to  which  the  children  will  easily,  give  the  name  of  four-sided 
figures.  The  children  may  now  select  these  from  the  box  of  forms. 

QUESTION. — What  is  a  four- sided  figure  ? 

The  same  plan  is  continued,  so  as  to  include  the  five,  six, 
seven,  and  eight-sided  figures. 

An-  excellent  plan,  still  further  to  impress  these  forms  upon  the 
senses  and  the  minds  of  the  children,  will  here  be  suggested,  as 
being  within  the  scope  of  every  teacher.  Let  her  draw  the 
figures  described  above  on  pasteboard ;  after  this,  the  figures  are 
cut  out  by  means  of  a  penknife,  so  that  the  holes,  as  well  as  the 
pieces  cut  out,  may  serve  as  illustrations  of  these  forms.  It  will 
be  well  to  draw  and  cut  out  several  kinds  of  four-sided  figures, 
since  each  of  them  represents  forms  of  frequent  occurrence.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  the  proper  Greek  names  ought  to  be  given  to 
these  quadrilaterals  at  this  step,  such  as  rhomb,  trapezoid,  &c. 
We  should  propose  to  take  the  children's  names,  such  as  window- 
shaped,  boat-shaped,  etc.,  which  will  prove  to  be  more  practical, 
especially  for  purposes  of  drawing.  "  Calkin's  Chart  of  Forms" 
may  be  used  in  connection  with  these  exercises,  the  children 
pointing  out  upon  the  chart  the  figures  corresponding  to  the  forms 
cut  from  pasteboard.  The  figure  on  the  chart  named  parallelo- 
gram, is  in  this  treatise  called  an  oblong. 

We  subjoin  here  the  exercises  which  this  plan  suggests,  in 
due  order : 

1.  The  children  take  the  pieces  which  the  teacher  has  cut  out, 
one  after  the  other,  and  find  out  to  what  hole  they  fit. 

2.  The  teacher  herself  fits  those  pieces  into  the  holes  from 
which  they  have  been  taken,  and  asks  what  figure  they  represent. 
Why  ?     Count  the  sides,  and  corners,  or  angles. 


FORM. FIRST   STEP.  67 

3.  She  then  may  tell  them  to  bring  her  a  piece  representing  a 
circle,  a  five-sided  figure,  a  four-sided  figure,  &c. 

4.  Finally,  she  bids  them  look  at  the  objects  in  the  room,  and 
find  out  which  of  them  has  a  triangular  surface,  or  one  which  is 
four-sided,  circular,  five,  six-sided,  &c. 

4.  Application  of  the  last  exercise  to  Drawing. 

The  bearing  of  this  last  exercise  to  drawing  is  so  obvious, 
that  we  shall  bring  it  in  as  a  part  of  the  lesson. 

The  teacher  proposes  to  draw  a  window,  and  asks  them  what 
kind  of  lines  will  represent  it  ?  What  kind  of  figure  ?  (They 
will  probably  refer  to  the  oblong.)  .Then  she  herself  begins  to 
draw,  always  asking  whether  the  class  knows  what  part  of  the 
window,  what  edge,  corner,  &c.,  she  is  drawing.  After  the  draw- 
ing is  completed,  she  may  call  the  children  out,  and,  pointing  to 
different  parts  of  the  window,  bid  the  children  point  to  the  analo- 
gous parts  of  the  drawing. 

N.  B. — Although  the  terms  horizontal,  vertical,  and  oblique, 
have  not  been  developed  at  this  step,  the  children's  meaning  will 
be  sufficiently  clear  in  speaking  of  lines  going  downward,  to  the 
right,  left,  sloping  lines,  &c. 

DRAWING    OF   A    HOUSE. 

It  need  not  be  remarked  that  drawings  of  this  kind  apply 
mostly  to  the  frontispiece  of  objects,  and  do  not  include  vanishing 
surfaces,  which  represent  thickness. 

The  teacher  again  may  ask  what  figure  they  think  would 
represent  the  front  of  a  house,  the  door,  the  windows,  &c.  What 
figure  do  they  think  would  represent  the  roof?  The  children 
may  possibly  find  that  the  one  they  have  called  "boat-shaped" 


\      / 


would  best  represent  it ;  if  not,  the  teacher  may  first  show  some 
wrong  figures,  till  she  hits  the  right  one,  which  will  probably  re- 
ceive the  approval  of  the  children. 


68  FOEM. — SECOND    STEP. 

Other  objects  that  might  be  drawn  by  the  teacher  under  the 
direction  of  the  children,  are :  a  box,  a  door,  a  secretary,  a  chest 
of  drawers,  a  clock,  &c. 

Although  the  children  are  not,  at  this  step,  supposed  to  draw 
themselves,  the  training  they  receive  in  regard  to  form,  &c.,  will 
be  invaluable.  The  real  starting  point  for  children  to  draw,  is  by 
means  of  the  inventive  drawing. 


SECOND    STEP. 

1.  Directions  of  the  Straight  Line. 

For  the  sake  of  the  recapitulation  of  one  of  the  previous  ex- 
ercises, the  teacher  may  draw  a  curved  line  on  the  blackboard,  and 
ask  what  kind  of  a  line  it  is.  Why  do  you  call  it  a  curved  line  ? 
She  then  may  draw  a  vertical,  horizontal,  and  oblique  line,  and 
ask  to  what  kind  of  lines  they  belong.  They  are  straight  lines. 
But  can  you  see  any  difference  in  the  direction  of  the  lines? 
The  children  undoubtedly  see  some  difference,  although  they  may 
not  be  able  to  state  it  clearly. 

In  order  to  develop  this  subject  in  a  visible  and  tangible  man- 
ner, the  teacher  may  place  a  stick  or  pointer  vertically  against  the 
wall  or  the  blackboard,  and  ask,  What  do  you  see  ?  How  is  the 
pointer  situated?  It  stands  against  the  wall.  And  now  (let- 
ting the  stick  fall  to  the  ground  )  ?  It  lies  on  the  floor.  And 
now  (leaning  it  toivard  the  wall,  inclining  it  to  the  right)  ?  It 
leans  against  the  wall. 

The  teacher  then  calls  upon  one  of  the  class  to  come  forward, 
and  draw,  by  means  of  a  line,  the  stick  as  it  looks  when  standing. 
Another  child  is  called  to  draw  the  stick  as  it  appears  when  lying 
on  the  floor ;  and  a  third  to  represent  the  stick  leaning  against  the 
wall.  Is  this  drawing  exactly  right  ?  Some  say,  The  stick  in- 
clines more  than  the  drawing  indicates.  To  which  side  does  the 
stick  incline  ?  Yes ;  to  the  right.  And  now  ?  To  the  left.  Let 
some  of  the  children  come  forward,  and  draw  it  as  it  appears 
now. 

After  the  several  lines  representing  the  stick  in  a  standing, 


FORM. SECOND    STEP.  69 

lying,  and  inclined  position,  are  thus  made  on  the  blackboard,  the 
teacher  may  point  to  one  of  the  lines — for  instance  to  the  vertical — 
asking  what  name  they  would  give  to  this  line.  A  standing,  up- 
right line,  &c.  She  then  gives  them  the  name  which  is  commonly 
applied  to  lines  of  this  class  in  drawing,  viz.,  vertical,  which  she 
spells,  writes  on  the  board,  and  makes  the  children  repeat.  No 
further  definition  is  necessary,  such  as  are  often  give  in  books,  and 
which  are  mostly  beyond  the  child's  experience.  Nevertheless, 
for  purposes  of  drawing,  or  in  mechanics,  an  accurate  standard  for 
measuring  the  vertical  direction  becomes  very  desirable.  For  this 
purpose  the  teacher  may  attach  to  the  end  of  a  string  a  weight, 
and  hold  it  suspended  before  the  class.  What  line  does  this  string 
describe  ?  Yes  ;  a  vertical  line,  and  in  so  perfect  a  manner  that 
we  may  use  it  to  measure  the  vertical  lines  on  the  blackboard,  or 
elsewhere,  as  a  carpenter  or  mason  measures  vertical  objects  or 
their  edges  by  means  of  something  very  much  like  this,  which  he 
calls  a  plummet.  Let  a  child  come  and  make  some  vertical  lines 
on  the  blackboard.  Are  they  exactly  right  ?  Who  thinks  they 
are  ?  Let  us  decide  it  with  the  plummet. 

The  teacher  next  makes  the  children  examine  the  horizontal 
line,  and  asks  whether  they  have  a  name  for  it.  She  then  tells 
them  that  instead  of  flat,  or  even,  the  word  horizontal  is  used  in 
speaking  of  lines.  In  order  to  reconcile  them  to  this  new  name, 
she  may  ask  them  whether  they  ever  stood  at  the  shore  of  the 
ocean  or  some  great  lake ;  whether  they  ever  observed  a  line 
where  the  sky  and  the  water  seem  to  meet.  She  then  tells  them 
that  this  line  is  called  "horizon,"  and  asks  which  of  the  lines 
on  the  board  the  horizon  seems  to  resemble  most  in  regard  to 
direction. 

Lastly,  she  inquires  for  the  name  they  would  give  the  oblique 
line.  If  they  call  it  sloping  or  slanting,  she  may  tell  them  that 
these  words  are  sometimes  used,  but  that  the  name  "oblique"  is 
generally  preferred  when  applied  to  lines.  The  teacher  must  take 
care  not  to  reject  unconditionally  the  names  which  the  children 
may  give  to  these  lines,  since  they  are  generally  correct  when 
applied  to  things  or  objects. 

A  recapitulation  of  the  lesson  may  be  had  as  follows : — 


70  FOEM. SECOND   STEP. 

1.  The  teacher  points  to  the  lines  on  the  blackboard,  and 
requires  their  names. 

2.  She  gives  the  name,  and  requires  the  children  to  draw  them, 
either  on  the  blackboard,  or  on  their  own  slates.     In  the  latter 
case  she  would  do  well  to  vary  the  exercises  by  saying,  Draw  four 
vertical  lines  of  the  same  length  ;   five  horizontal  lines,  beginning 
with  a  short  one,  and  making  each  successive  one  a  little  longer ; 
six  oblique  lines,  inclining  to  the  right ;   seven  oblique  lines,  in- 
clining to  the  left,  &c. 

3.  She  then  requires  them  to  point  out  objects  in  the  room 
that  have  a  vertical,  horizontal,  and  oblique  direction,  either  as  a 
whole,  or  considering  their  edges  only. 

2.  Angles. 

We  have  already  considered  how  angles  are  formed.  We 
will  only  remark  here,  that  a  pair  of  scissors  or  shears  are  well 
calculated  to  illustrate  angles ;  and  the  fact  that  their  size  depends 
on  the  width  of  the  opening,  and  not  on  the  length  of  the  lines, 
or,  in  case  of  the  instruments,  on  the  length  of  the  blades. 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  three  different  kinds  of  angles,  let  the 
teacher  present  to  the  class  a  knife  with  a  straight  edge,  when 
questions  like  the  following  may  be  asked : — The  teacher  (open- 
ing the  knife  half-ivay)  asks,  How  much  did  I  open  this  knife  ? 
Trace  the  angle  which  it  describes.  After  shutting  it  a  little,  she 
asks,  And  what  is  its  opening  now?  Yes;  less  than  before. 
And  now  ?  More  than  at  first.  (Shutting  it  entirely)  :  And 
now  ?  (  Opening  it  entirely)  :  And  now  ?  What  can  you  say  of 
the  angles  in  the  last  two  cases  ?  There  were  no  angles. 

A  scholar  is  then  required  to  draw  the  angle  which  was  repre- 
sented by  the  knife  when  it  was  half  open.  He  can  give  it,  of 
course,  the  opening  he  thinks  most  appropriate,  by  guess  or  other- 
wise. It  will,  however,  generally  be  found  that  the  child's  practi- 
cal sense  will  suggest  to  him  that  an  angle  like  the  one  he  is  re- 
quired to  draw  is  most  easily  made  by  erecting  a  vertical  line  upon 
the  end  of  a  horizontal  one.  In  that  case,  the  name  and  following 
definition  may  be  given  :  A  right  angle  is  formed  by  drawing  a 


FORM. — SECOND   STEP.  71 

Vertical  line  from  the  end  of  a  horizontal  one.  Let  the  children 
repeat  this,  and  try  to  execute  the  right  angle  according  to  the 
direction  given. 

Now  draw  the  angle  which  is  represented  by  the  knife  when 
it  is  less  than  half  open.  What  did  we  call  the  angle  you  drew 
before  ?  What  can  you  say  of  the  one  you  have  just  drawn  ? 
Yes  ;  it  is  smaller  than  the  right  angle.  Now  I  will  tell  you  :  an 
angle  which  is  smaller  or  less  than  a  right  angle,  is  called  an  acute 
angle.  Repeat  this. 

Now  draw  this  angle  which  is  represented  by  the  knife  more 
than  half  open.  How  is  the  angle  you  have  drawn,  when  com- 
pared to  the  right  angle  ?  Greater  than  the  right  angle.  Now 
I  will  give  you  its  name  :  an  angle  which  is  greater  than  a 
right  angle,  is  called  an  obtuse  angle.  Repeat  this. 

The  teacher  may  finally  present  to  the  class  a  knife  with  a  long 
blade,  together  with  a  smaller  one,  both  half  open,  and  ask, 
What  angles  do  both  of  these  blades  describe  ?  Right  angles. 
Which  is  the  greater  of  the  two  right  angles  ?  They  are  alike. 
Why  ?  Because  the  blades  are  both  half  open,  or  because  they 
are  equally  open.  Then  repeat :  Angles  are  alike  when  their 
openings  are  the  same.  All  right  angles  are  equal. 

EXERCISES. — 1.  The  teacher  draws  promiscuously  a  certain 
number  of  angles  of  different  kinds  on  the  board,  some  of  them 
hardly  discernible  from  right  angles,  and  requires  the  class  to  name 
them. 

2.  She  tells  them  to  draw  any  kind  of  angle  she  describes,  as, 
for  instance,  an  acute  angle  with  a  very  small  opening,  another 
with  a  wide  opening,  &c.  % 

3.  She  asks  them  to  point  out  right,  acute,  or  obtuse  angles, 
as  formed  by  objects  they  see  about  them. 

3.  Perpendicular  Lines. 

Although  the  children  have  hitherto  been  encouraged  to  form 
their  right  angles  by  the  combination  of  a  vertical  line  with  hori- 
zontal ones,  it  will  be  necessary  to  generalize  the  idea.  For  this 
purpose  the  teacher  may  hold  up  horizontally  a  slate,  and  ask 


72  FORM. SECOND    STEP. 

what  angles  they  perceive  on  it.     Then  she  may  turn  the  slate  so 
that  one  corner  falls  lower  than  the  other,  thus : 


and  ask  whether  the  angle  they  see  there  is  still  a  right  angle. 
What  kind  of  lines  form  it  ?  Yes ;  slanting  lines.  Then  let 
them  draw  an  angle  in  the  above  position.  A  child  does  so  on 
the  blackboard,  and  the  teacher  appeals  to  the  class  to  determine 
whether  the  angle  is  right.  As  there  may  be  a  difference  of  opin- 
ion, one  of  the  lines  may  be  prolonged,  thus : 


"What  do  you  see  now?  Two  angles.  Where  situated?  On 
each  side  of  one  of  the  lines.  What  can  you  say  of  these 
angles  ?  What  about  the  size  of  their  openings  ?  (This  may  be 
ascertained  by  measuring,  at  an  equal  distance  from  the  point  of 
meeting,  across  the  opening  of  the  angle.)  If  this  point  is  settled, 
the  teacher  tells  them :  When  one  line  meets  another,  so  that  the 
angles  on  each  side  are  equal  to  each  other,  such  angles  are  right 
angles.  And  again :  Any  line  which  forms  a  right  angle  with 
another,  is  said  to  be  perpendicular  to  the  other  line. 

EXERCISES. — 1.  The  teacher  bids  one  child  draw  on  the 
board  a  line  in  any  direction,  and  then  to  draw  another  line  per- 
pendicular to  the  first.  If  it  should  be  done  incorrectly,  then  the 
teacher  must  apply  the  test  suggested  above.  The  questions  to 
be  asked  in  such  a  case  are  :  What  kind  of  angle  is  this  ?  Yes ; 
an  acute  angle.  And  this?  An  obtuse  angle.  Can  the  line 
drawn  be  a  perpendicular  ?  Why  not  ? 

2.  The  class  is  then  required  to  point  out  edges  of  objects  that 
are  perpendicular  to  other  edges.  Pointing  to  the  blackboard,  for 
instance,  the  teacher  may  ask,  What  can  you  say  of  these  two 


FORM. — SECOND   STEP.  73 

edges  with  reference  to  each  other  ?     Is  it  also  vertically  placed 
on  that  edge  ?     Then  is  it  both  perpendicular  and  vertical  ? 

EEMARK. — As  the  term  perpendicular  is  frequently  used  in  the 
place  of  vertical,  it  may  be  well  to  make  the  class  acquainted  with 
this  fact ;  without,  however,  recommending  it,  since  it  may  lead  to 
a  confusion  of  ideas.  For  instance,  pointing  to  a  sloping  edge  of 
a  desk,  the  teacher  may  ask,  What  kind  of  edge  is  that  placed 
under  it?  A  vertical  one.  Is  it  perpendicular  to  the  sloping 
one  ?  It  is  not. 

4.  Triangles. 

The  teacher  draws  a  right,  an  obtuse,  and  an  acute  angle  on 
the  board,  and  then  shuts  the  opening  of  each  by  a  third  line. 
She  then  asks,  What  do  you  call  these  figures  now?  Of  how, 
many  lines  or  sides  are  they  composed?  What  can  you  say  as  to 
their  resemblance  or  difference  ?  Point  out  any  difference  be- 
tween them ;  for  instance,  between  the  first  and  second.  In  the 
first  there  is  a  right  angle,  which  is  not  in  the  second ;  in  the 
second  there  is  an  obtuse  angle,  which  is  not  in  the  first.  What 
can  you  say  of  the  angles  in  the  third  of  these  triangles  ?  They 
are  all  acute  angles.  See  if  you  can  find  any  acute  angles  in  the 
first  and  second  figures.  How  many  are  there  ?  Point  them  out. 

The  teacher  then  may  tell  them  that  the  names  given  to  these 
triangles  depend  on  the  kind  of  angles  they  have.  The  one  which 
has  a  right  angle  in  connection  with  two  acute  angles,  is  called  a 
right-angled  triangle.  The  other,  which  has  an  obtuse  and  two 
acute  angles,  is  called  an  obtuse-angled  triangle.  The  third,  which 
has  three  acute  angles,  is  called  an  acute-angled  triangle.  Repeat 
this. 

EXERCISES. — 1.  The  teacher  may  draw  any  number  of  trian- 
gles of  the  above  kinds,  and  require  the  children  to  give  their 
names. 

2.  She  requires  them  to  draw  any  of  these  triangles  according 
to  dictation. 

3.  She  bids  them  to  point  out  triangular  faces  of  one  or  the 
other  kind  on  objects  they  see  in  the  room. 

4 


74:  FOEM. SECOND    STEP. 

5.    Continuation  of  Triangles. 

The  triangles  in  the  former  exercises  were  classed  by  compar- 
ing their  angles.  The  teacher  now  proposes  to  class  them  by 
comparing  their  sides.  Who  can  make  a  triangle  having  two  of 
its  sides  equal,  and  the  other  of  a  different  length  ?  Who  can 
make  a  triangle  having  all  of  its  sides  unequal  ?  Who  can  make 
a  triangle  having  its  three  sides  equal  ?  The  pupils,  in  attempting 
to  make  these,  may  possibly  fail.  In  this  case  the  teacher  draws 
the  figures  for  them  on  the  blackboard,  and  shows  them  that  the 
angles  must  have  a  certain  opening,  to  make  the  construction  pos- 
sible. The  teacher  then  gives  the  names : 

Fig.  1  is  called  an  isosceles  triangle. 
"     2  "  scalene        " 

"3  "          equilateral  (equal-sided,  regular)  triangle. 

After  this  the  children  give  a  definition  of  each.     In  the  recapitu- 
lation the  same  order  of  exercises  is  to  be  observed  as  before. 

6.  Parallel  Lines. 

The  teacher,  by  way  of  introduction,  and  with  reference  to 
one  of  the  last  exercises,  may  inquire  of  the  class  whether  they 
could  construct  a  triangle  with  two  right  angles  in  it  ?  In  attempt- 
ing to  do  it,  they  would  produce  a  figure  similar  to 


Can  you  do  it?  Why  not?  The  perpendicular  lines  will  not 
meet.  Supposing  I  lengthen  them,  what  then  ?  Why  is  it  ne- 
cessary they  should  meet,  to  make  a  triangle  ?  Let  us  now  ex- 
amine those  lines  which  will  not  meet,  however  much  they  may 
be  lengthened.  What  line  measures  the  distance  between  them  ? 
Supposing  I  measure  the  distance  higher  up,  what  then  ?  How 
does  this  distance  compare  with  that  at  the  bottom  ?  What  would 
"be  the  result  should  we  measure  it  in  other  places  ?  Yes ;  we 
find  that  these  lines  are  the  same  distance  apart  at  every  point. 


FORM. — SECOND   STEP.  75 

Now  I  will  tell  you,  that  lines  which  will  never  meet,  however 
far  they  may  be  lengthened,  and  which  always  have  the  same 
distance  between  them,  are  called  parallel  lines.  Repeat  this. 
Now  draw  some  parallel  lines.  "With  what  instrument  do  you 
think  I  could  make  any  number  of  parallel  lines  with  much 
ease  and  correctness  ?  Where  do  you  find  these  lines  ?  On  writ- 
ing paper.  Where  else  ?  Make  on  your  slates  five  vertical  paral- 
lel lines.  Now  five  vertical  lines  not  parallel.  Is  this  possible  ? 
It  is  not.  Then  say,  All  vertical  lines  must  be  parallel.  Draw 
now  six  horizontal  parallel  lines.  Draw  six  horizontal  lines  not  paral- 
lel. Is  this  possible  ?  Then  say,  Horizontal  lines  must  be  paral- 
lel. Now  draw  five  oblique  parallel  lines  to  the  left ;  five  oblique 
parallel  lines  to  the  right ;  five  oblique  lines  not  parallel.  Is  this 
possible  ?  Then  say,  Oblique  lines  may  be  or  may  not  be  parallel. 
Are  there  any  parallel  lines  in  a  triangle  ?  In  a  four-sided  figure  ? 
This  latter  point  we  propose  to  consider  more  particularly  in  the 
next  lesson. 

7.  Four-sided  Figures,  or  Quadrilaterals. 

As  the  children  have,  in  the  preceding  exercises,  obtained 
some  insight  into  the  principle  of  classifying  geometrical  figures, 
it  is  proposed  that  they  should,  in  this  exercise,  perform  the  classi- 
fication themselves,  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher.  For  this 
purpose,  draw  promiscuously  on  the  blackboard  the  six  different 
kinds  of  quadrilaterals ;  as,  for  instance,*  1,  the  trapezium ;  2,  the 
square ;  3,  the  trapezoid ;  4,  the  rectangle ;  5,  the  rhomboid ; 
6,  the  rhomb.  It  need  hardly  be  stated,  that  the  teacher  must 
refer  to  these  figures  by  their  numbers  only,  until  their  names  are 
given. 

She  now  may  ask,  In  which  of  these  figures  do  you  see  two 
pairs  of  parallel  lines — that  is,  two  lines  running  parallel  in  one 
direction,  and  two  running  parallel  in  another?  In  figs.  2,  4, 
5,  6.  What  can  you  say  of  the  length  of  their  opposite  sides  ? 
They  are  equal. 

The  teacher  then  selects  the  figures  just  named,  and  draws 

*  For  these  figures,  see  Chart  of  Forms. 


76  FOKM. SECOND    STEP. 

* 
them  on  another  line,  and  says,  Four-sided  figures,  having  all  their 

opposite  sides  parallel  and  equal,  are  called  parallelograms.  Re- 
peat the  definition.  After  this,  she  asks  the  children  which 
of  these  parallelograms  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  each  other  ? 
Figs.  2  and  4.  In  what  particular  are  they  alike  ?  They  have 
both  four  right  angles.  In  what  are  they  different,  if  you  compare 
their  sides  ?  Fig.  2  has  all  its  sides  equal,  and  fig.  4  has  two 
opposite  sides  shorter  than  the  other  two.  Is  there  any  resem- 
blance between  the  other  two  parallelograms,  figs.  5  and  6  ? 
Yes.  In  what  are  they  alike  ?  In  what  are  they  different  ? 

The  teacher  then  tells  them,  that  if  they  will  make  a  full  de- 
scription of  each  figure  she  points  out,  she  will  give  them  its 
proper  name.  What  is  this  figure  ?  (fig.  2).  A  parallelogram, 
of  which  all  the  angles  are  right  angles,  and  the  sides  equal.  The 
teacher  gives  the  name  square,  and  requires  the  class  to  repeat 
the  definition,  with  the  name  attached  to  it. 

"What  is  this  figure  ?  (fig.  1).  A  parallelogram  which  has 
four  right  angles,  and  two  opposite  sides  shorter  than  the  other 
two.  The  teacher  gives  the  name  oblong. 

What  is  this  figure  ?  (fig.  6).  A  parallelogram  having  two 
opposite  angles  acute,  and  the  others  obtuse,  and  all  the  sides 
equal.  The  name  rhomb  is  then  given. 

What  is  this  figure  ?  (fig.  5).  A  parallelogram  having  two 
opposite  angles  acute  and  two  obtuse,  and  two  opposite  sides 
shorter  than  the  other  two.  The  name  rhomboid  is  then  given. 

There  remain  now  only  figs.  1  and  3,  which  are  not  classed 
among  the  parallelograms.  The  teacher  tells  the  class  that  in  the 
description  of  these  two  figures,  neither  the  angles  nor  the  length 
or  equality  of  the  sides  are  considered,  but  simply  the  fact  of  their 
having  any  sides  parallel  or  not.  She  then  bids  them  to  describe 
these  figures  accordingly,  after  which  she  will  give  their  names. 
Pointing  to  fig.  1,  she  asks,  What  do  you  see  ?  A  four-sided 
figure,  which  has  but  one  pair  of  parallel  sides.  The  name 
trapezoid  is  given. 

What  do  you  see  here  ?  A  four-sided  figure  having  none  of 
its  sides  parallel.  In  order  to  impress  these  figures  in  somewhat 
modified  forms,  the  teacher  may  ask  whether  they  could  make  a 


FOKM. — SECOND    STEP.  77 

trapezoid  with  two  right  angles,  or  with  two  lines,  or  even  three 
lines  equal ; — a  trapezium  with  two  adjacent  sides  equal,  and  hav- 
ing all  kinds  of  angles,  right,  acute,  and  obtuse. 

EXERCISES. — 1.  The  teacher  draws  a  number  of  different  four- 
sided  figures  on  the  board,  and  asks  for  their  names,  requiring,  if 
necessary,  definitions. 

2.  She  bids  the  class  draw  the  figures  according  to  her  de- 
scription or  classification. 

3.  She  then  requires  the  pupils  to  point  out  objects  in  the 
room,  the  faces  of  which  are  squares,  rectangles,  rhombs,  rhom- 
boids, &c. 

N.  B. — There  will  be  no  lack  of  objects  presenting  rectangular 
faces,  such  as  panes  of  glass,  boards,  walls,  tables,  steps,  boxes, 
houses,  &c.  In  order  to  supply  to  some  extent  a  deficiency  in 
rhombical  surfaces,  an  intelligent  teacher  may  present  some  min- 
erals, in  their  crystallized  shape,  which  will  moreover  give  them 
an  idea  of  some  regular  solids,  not  often  found  amongst  the  works 
of  man. 

8.  Polygons. 

As  the  children  are  already  acquainted  with  the  meaning  of 
five,  six,  seven,  eight-sided  figures,  it  only  remains  to  give  them 
the  names  by  which  they  are  generally  known  in  geometry,  and 
which  have  at  least  the  advantage  of  being  shorter.  Let  the 
figures  be  drawn  on  the  blackboard  by  the  teacher. 

A  five-sided  figure  is  called  a  pentagon. 
A  six-sided       "  "         a  hexagon. 

A  seven-sided  "  "        a  heptagon. 

An  eight-sided  "  "         an  octagon. 

Let  the  teacher  question  the  children  as  to  the  number  of 
sides,  angles,  and  corners  in  these  various  figures,  and  lead  them 
to  discover  that  it  is  always  the  same  in  each. 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  original  meaning  of  polygon,  the 
teacher  might  draw  on  the  board  a  figure  with  a  great  number  of 
sides,  and  ask  the  class  how  many  sides  it  has.  If  the  children 
are  puzzled  to  tell  exactly  the  number  of  sides,  she  may  ask 


78  FORM. — SECOND   STEP. 

whether  it  has  few  or  many  sides  ?  It  has  many  sides.  It 
might  therefore  be  called  a  many-sided  figure.  Polygon  means 
the  same  thing.  She  may  further  state,  that  any  figure  including 
the  triangle  is  classed  among  the  polygons.  The  definition  is  now 
given :  A  polygon  is  a  figure  enclosed  by  three,  or  more  than 
three  sides. 

In  order  to  develop  the  idea  regular,  the  teacher  draws  a  regu- 
lar polygon,  and  asks,  What  can  you  say  of  its  different  sides  and 
angles  ?  Yes ;  they  are  equal.  A  polygon  with  its  sides  and 
angles  equal,  is  called  a  regular  polygon.  Is  the  square  a  regular 
polygon  ?  Is  the  rhomb  ?  Why  not  ? 

In  order  to  develop  the  idea  of  diagonal,  let  the  teacher  draw 
a  line  through  any  of  the  above  figures  from  one  corner  to  the 
other,  and  ask  what  she  has  done.  The  teacher  may  tell  them : 
A.  line  drawn  from  one  corner  to  another  is  called  a  diagonal.  Re- 
peat this.  Can  any  diagonals  be  drawn  in  a  triangle  ?  x  How 
many  in  a  four-sided  figure  ?  in  a  pentagon  ?  hexagon  ?  heptagon  ? 
octagon?  The  amount  will  prove  to  be  respectively,  two,  five, 
nine,  fourteen,  twenty  diagonals. 

9.   The  Circle. 

The  circle  is  mentioned  here  last  amongst  the  inclosed  spaces, 
although  it  is  in  one  sense  the  simplest  of  all,  and  the  one  which 
is  easiest  recognized  by  children.  Yet  the  perfection  of  its  form, 
and  the  reflections  that  are  called  forth  by  it,  seem  to  place  it  on 
a  somewhat  higher  step. 

In  order  to  show  the  construction  of  the  circle,  as  well  as  some 
of  its  properties,  let  the  teacher  draw,  by  means  of  a  chalk  at- 
tached to  one  end  of  a  string,  a  circular  line.  What  have  I  been 
drawing  ?  A  round  line,  a  ring,  a  circle.  Let  us  call  the  whole 
figure  a  circle,  and  the  surrounding  line  "the  circumference."  Can 
you  tell  me  where  the  middle  of  the  circle  is  situated  ?  Where 
you  held  the  other  end  of  the  string.  (The  teacher  makes  a  dot 
at  the  point  indicated.)  How  do  you  know  that  this  is  the  middle  ? 
What  can  you  say  of  its  distance  from  the  different  points  in  the 
circumference  ?  It  is  the  same  distance  from  every  point.  Why 
must  it  be  so  ?  Let  us  now  call  the  point  in  the  middle  the  centre 


FORM. SECOND   STEP.  79 

of  a  circle.  "What  is  the  centre  ?  Give  a  definition  of  it.  If  the 
centre  be  equally  distant  from  all  points  of  the  circumference,  what 
must  the  circumference  be  in  regard  to  the  centre  ?  Make  a  defi- 
nition of  the  circumference.  But  what  is  the  circle  itself,  as  a 
space  ?  Describe  it  fully.  A  circle  is  a  space  surrounded  ly  a 
line,  called  its  circumference;  this  line  is  equally  distant  at  all 
points  from  a  point  called  the  centre  of  the  circle. 

When  the  circle  was  constructed  on  the  blackboard,  by  what 
has  the  distance  between  the  centre  and  the  circumference  been 
measured  ?  By  the  string.  Let  us  now  imagine  the  string  to  be 
a  line  which,  as  the  thread  is  moved  round,  can  assume  various 
positions.  The  teacher  draws  several  of  these  lines,  and  calls  one 
of  them  a  radius ;  several  of  them,  radii.  "What  is  a  radius  ?  "What 
can  you  say  of  the  length  of  the  radii  ?  Then  say  :  All  the  radii 
of  one  circle  are  equal. 

The  teacher  then  may  make  two  radii  going  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, and  ask  how  many  lines  they  form.  They  form  but  one  line. 
Describe  that  line — where  it  begins,  through  what  point  it  passes, 
and  where  it  ends.  It  is  drawn  from  one  point  of  the  circum- 
ference, passes  through  the  centre,  and  terminates  in  an  opposite 
point  of  the  circumference.  Let  us  call  a  line  of  this  kind  "  a 
diameter."  "What  is  a  diameter  ?  How  many  times  the  length 
of  a  radius  ?  Can  we  draw  more  than  one  diameter  ?  How  ? 
"What  can  you  say  of  the  length  of  the  different  diameters  ? 

As  it  is  not  proposed  here  to  give  a  definition  of  all  the  parts 
of  divisions  of  the  circle,  we  limit  ourselves  to  some  of  the  most 
important  ones.  As,  for  instance,  A  diameter  cuts  a  circle  into 
two  equal  parts,  each  of  which  is  called  a  semicircle.  Two  diame- 
ters, intersecting  at  right  angles,  divide  the  circumference  into  four 
equal  parts,  called  quadrants.  Any  part  of  the  circle  is  called  an 
arc*  The  teacher  may  show  them  by  what  an  easy  and  grace- 
ful movement  an  arc  is  produced,  by  simply  swinging  the  arm. 
Performing  the  same  movement  on  the  blackboard,  with  chalk  in 
hand,  the  children  will  see  the  arc  arise.  Does  this  arc  belong  to 
a  small  or  large  circle  ?  "Where  do  you  think  its  centre  would  be  ? 

*  For  these  figures,  see  Chart  of  Forms. 


80  FOBM. — THIED   STEP. 

Is  the  arc  which  belongs  to  a  large  circle,  more  or  less  bent  than 
the  one  which  belongs  to  a  small  circle  ? 


THIKD    STEP. 

1.  JSolids. 

It  is  perhaps  premature  to  suppose  that  even  in  these  days 
of  educational  progress,  a  box  of  solids  will  be  considered  as 
necessary  an  appendage  of  the  school  room,  as  alphabetical  cards 
or  a  map  of  the  country.  If  it  should  not  be  found  there,  it  is  cer- 
tainly an  easy  task  for  the  teacher,  as  well  as  the  pupils,  to  manu- 
facture the  most  important  solids,  such  as  the  cylinder,  the-  cone, 
and  a  number  of  pyramids  and  prisms,  from  pasteboard.  As  the 
word  "  solid  "  will  be  often  used  in  these  exercises,  the  teacher 
will  do  well  to  remark,  at  the  outset,  that  -  every  extension  in 
length,  breadth,  and  thickness,  is  called  "a  solid,"  which  word, 
must  not  be  confounded  with  the  quality  "  solid,"  which  would, 
for  instance,  never  be  attributed  to  water,  while  nobody  will  deny 
that  any  volume  of  water  has  length,  breadth,  and  thickness,  and 
is  therefore  a  solid,  like  all  other  objects. 

2.   The  Sphere. 

As  the  solid  which  is  presented  to  the  class  is  already  Known 
to  them  under  the  name  of  loll,  the  teacher  gives  the  more  geo- 
metrical name  of  sphere  ;  the  object  of  this  lesson  being  to  make 
them  aware  of  its  properties.  Where  is  the  surface  of  the  sphere  ? 
Mark  a  point  on  the  surface,  and  one  directly  opposite  on  the 
other  side.  Supposing  I  pass  a  string  or  a  thread  from  one  point 
over  the  other,  till  it  returns  to  the  first  point,  what  line  does  it 
describe  ?  Now  if  I  cut  through  the  sphere,  along  the  circular 
line  described  by  the  thread,  how  would  the  sphere  be  divided  ? 
(This  operation  ought  to  be  performed,  or,  at  any  rate,  illustrated.) 
These  half  spheres  are  called  hemispheres.  How  are  they  called  ? 
"What  can  you  say  of  the  faces  of  the  hemisphere  ?  Of  what 
shape  is  it  ?  How  can  you  find  the  centre  of  such  a  circle  ? 


FORM. — THIKD   STEP.  81 

Right ;  by  drawing  a  diameter,  and  marking  a  point  in  its  middle. 
Suppose  we  put  the  two  parts  together  again,  so  as  to  form  a 
sphere,  what  part  of  the  sphere  does  this  point  represent  ?  If  a 
great  many  lines  were  drawn  from  one  point  of  the  surface  to  an 
opposite  one,  what  would  they  all  pass  through  ?  "What  would 
such  lines  be  called  ?  Yes,  diameters.  Are  these  diameters  equal  ? 
(This  might  be  shown  by  inserting  the  sphere  in  various  positions 
between  two  vertical  sticks,  placed  at  a  distance  equal  to  the  diame- 
ter of  the  solid.)  If  diameters  are  equal,  what  can  you  say  of  the 
radii  ?  Why  ?  Where  is  one  point  of  each  of  the  radii  situated  ? 
On  the  surface.  And  the  other  ?  In  the  centre.  What  can  we 
say  in  regard  to  the  distance  of  every  point  of  the  surface  from 
the  centre  ?  That  it  is  equally  removed  from  the  centre.  Now 
give  a  definition  of  a  sphere.  A  sphere  is  a  solid,  bounded  by  a 
rounded  surface,  every  point  of  which  is  equally  distant  from  a 
point  inside,  called  the  centre  of  a  sphere.  If  a  sphere  becomes 
flattened  on  two  opposite  sides,  it  is  called  a  spheroid.  This  can 
be  illustrated  by  a  ball  made  of  India-rubber.  Many  objects  in 
nature  have  the  shape  of  a  spheroid.  Now  name  a  great  many 
objects  which  are  either  spherical  or  spheroidical.  Apples, 
oranges,  peaches,  cherries,  many  berries,  raindrops,  soap  bubbles, 
&c.  Do  you  know  what  form  the  earth  has  ?  If  the  children  do 
not  know  it,  a  globe  may  be  produced.  Of  what  shape  is  the 
egg  ?  Is  it  exactly  like  a  sphere  or  an  orange  ?  Then  we  will  call 
its  shape  egg-shaped,  or,  what  means  the  same,  oval. 

3.   The  Cylinder. 

Describe  the  object  before  you.  What  do  you  see  on  its  sur- 
face ?  Two  circular  plane  faces,  and  a  rounded  face  between  them. 
If  you  wanted  to  make  this  solid  stand,  how  would  you  place  it  ? 
On  one  of  its  plane  faces.  Now  I  will  tell  you  that  the  face  on 
which  it  is  supposed  to  stand  is  called  its  base.  How  many  bases 
has  the  solid  ?  We  will  compare  these  bases  one  with  the  other. 
What  can  you  say  of  them  ?  Yes,  they  are  equal.  And  what 
more  can  you  say  of  them  ?  They  are  parallel.  If  the  children 
do  not  readily  give  these  answers,  the  teacher  may  draw  them 
4* 


02  FOEM. — THIRD   STEP. 

out  by  putting  each  end  upon  the  board,  and  drawing  a  mark 
around  it.  Compare  the  circles  thus  made.  The  idea  of  a  paral- 
lel may  be  brought  out  by  placing  objects  upon  the  table  parallel 
to  each  other.  The  name  of  the  solid  is  cylinder.  "Who  can  de- 
scribe it  ?  The  cylinder  is  a  solid,  having  two  circular  bases, 
which  are  parallel  and  equal,  and  a  rounded  face  between. 
Now  name  some  objects  that  have  a  cylindrical  form,  as  hats, 
stovepipes,  tumblers,  rolls,  rulers,  pillars,  &c. 

4.  The  Cone. 

Describe  the  surface  of  this  object.  It  has  a  circular  plane 
base,  and  a  curved  face.  Can  you  tell  me  the  difference  between 
this  circular  face  and  the  circular  face  of  the  cylinder  ?  Yes,  it 
ends  in  a  point.  Does  it  end  suddenly  in  a  point,  or  does  it  be- 
come narrower  gradually  ?  Now  we  will  use  the  word  tapering, 
instead  of  "becoming  narrower,"  and  call  the  sharp  point  at  the 
top  "apex."  The  name  of  the  solid  is  cone.  Who  can  describe 
it  ?  A  cone  is  a  solid,  having  a  plane  circular  base,  and  a  curved 
face  tapering  toward  a  point,  called  its  apex.  Name  some  objects 
which  are  of  a  conical  shape.  The  trunks  of  many  trees,  carrots, 
sugar  loaves,  the  peaks  of  many  mountains,  &c. 

REMARKS. — The  teacher  may  show  that  by  cutting  off  the  top 
of  a  cone,  the  remaining  piece,  which  is  called  a  "  truncated  cone," 
presents  a  form  which  is  common  to  some  objects,  as,  for  instance, 
coal  scuttles,  pails,  &c. 

5.  Pyramids. 

Out  of  several  different  solids  on  the  table,  including  a  variety 
of  pyramids,  let  the  children  select  those  already  considered,  and 
then  ask  them  if  there  are  any  other  solids  that  resemble  these. 
Let  some  one  come  forward  and  select  these  solids,  and  place  them 
by  the  side  of  the  one  they  most  resemble.  The  children  may 
probably  choose  those  terminating  in  a  point,  and  place  them  near 
the  cone.  In  what  do  these  solids  resemble  the  cone  ?  In  what 
are  they  different  ?  They  have  only  plane  faces,  while  the  cone 


FORM. THIRD   STEP.  83 

has  a  curved  one.  "What  can  you  say  of  their  bases  ?  "What  is 
the  base  of  the  cylinder  ?  A  circle.  "What  is  the  base  of  this 
solid  ?  A  triangle.  Of  this  ?  A  square.  Of  this  ?  A  penta- 
gon, &c.  Supposing  we  wished  to  speak  of  all  their  bases  to- 
gether, what  could  we  call  them  ?  Polygons.  If  necessary  to 
bring  out  this  answer,  the  teacher  can  refer  them  to  the  plane 
figures  they  have  called  polygons.  The  teacher  should  always  be 
careful  not  to  answer  for  children  questions  which  they  may  be 
led  to  answer  for  themselves.  Now  look  at  the  faces  of  these 
pyramids.  What  can  you  say  of  their  number  ?  They  do  not 
have  the  same  number.  What  can  you  say  of  their  form  ?  They 
are  alike  in  form.  What  is  their  form  ?  Yes  ;  they  are  all  tri- 
angles. How  does  the  number  of  triangles  on  each  compare  with 
the  number  of  sides  to  the  base  ?  Yes  ;  there  is  the  same  num- 
ber of  theni.  Now  I  will  tell  you,  that  all  solids  of  this  descrip- 
tion are  called  pyramids.  Can  you  describe  a  pyramid  ?  A 
pyramid  is  a  solid,  having  a  polygon  for  its  base,  and  as  many  tri- 
angles tapering  toward  one  point  (the  apex)  as  there  are  sides  in 
the  base. 

The  teacher  has  to  add,  that  according  to  the  number  of  sides 
in  the  base,  these  solids  are  called  " triangular,"  "quadrangular," 
"pentagonal,"  "hexagonal,"  &c.,  pyramids. 

EXERCISES. — 1.  Select  a  pentagonal  pyramid.  Tell  how  many 
faces,  corners,  edges,  angles,  &c.,  you  find  in  it. 

2.  Think  of  a  hexagonal  pyramid.     Tell  how  many  faces,  cor- 
ners, edges,  angles,  &c.,  you  think  it  has. 

3.  Point  out  as  many  objects  as  you  can,  the  shape  of  which 
is  like  a  pyramid. 

REMARK. — The  teacher  may  make  here  an  allusion  to  the  most 
ancient  of  all  monuments,  the  pyramids  of  Egypt,  and  demon- 
strate how  difficult  it  is  to  overthrow  a  pyramind  resting  on  a 
broad  base. 

6.  Prisms. 

The  several  kinds  of  prisms  to  be  considered  in  the  lesson, 
being  placed  on  the  table,  the  teacher  asks,  Which  of  the  solids 


84:  FOKM. — THIED   STEP. 

on  the  table  resembles  somewhat  a  cylinder  ?  The  children  will 
probably  select  a  many-sided  prism,  and  the  teacher  can  lead  them 
to  consider  how  each  of  the  prisms  might  become  a  cylinder,  by 
rolling  it  over  many  times,  thus  wearing  away  its  edges.  In  what 
are  these  solids  different  from  the  cylinder?  They  have  only 
plane  faces.  If  you  wished  to  make  them  stand,  on  which  faces 
would  you  place  them?  And  what  do  we  call  the  faces  on 
which  objects  stand  ?  "What  is  the  form  of  their  bases  ?  They 
may  be  triangles,  squares,  rectangles,  pentagons,  &c.  If  we 
wished  to  speak  of  them  all  as  one  class,  what  should  we  say  ? 
They  are  polygons.  What  can  you  say  of  the  size  of  the  two 
bases  of  each  ?  They  are  equal.  What  more  can  you  say  of 
them  ?  They  are  parallel.  Of  what  shape  are  their  surrounding 
faces  ?  They  are  all  oblongs.  But  I  see  some  here  which  are 
rhomboids.  Let  one  of  the  children  select  the  rhomboids.  To 
what  class  do  both  oblongs  and  rhomboids  belong?  To  the 
class  of  parallelograms.  Then  what  shall  we  call  all  the  sur- 
rounding faces  ?  Parallelograms.  How  does  the  number  of  faces 
in  each  compare  with  the  number  of  sides  in  each  of  their  bases  ? 
It  is  equal  to  the  number  of  their  sides.  Now  I  will  tell  you,  that 
solids  of  this  kind  are  called  prisms.  Who  can  describe  a  prism  ? 

It  may  be  necessary  to  lead  the  children  to  this  definition 
at  first,  by  repeating  some  questions ;  as,  What  did  you  tell  me 
^bout  the  bases  of  these  prisms  ?  They  are  equal.  And  what 
more  did  you  say  of  them  ?  They  are  parallel.  Now  tell  me  in 
one  sentence  what  you  can  say  of  their  bases.  Their  bases  are 
equal  and  parallel.  What  did  we  say  of  their  surrounding  faces  ? 
Their  surrounding  faces  are  parallelograms.  Now  describe  in  one 
sentence  a  prism.  The  prism  is  a  solid,  having  for  its  bases 
equal  and  parallel  polygons,  whilst  the  surrounding  faces  are 
parallelograms. 

The  teacher  may  add  that  these  prisms  have  particular  names, 
according  to  the  number  of  sides  in  their  bases.  The  teacher 
holds  up  a  triangular  prism,  and  questions  the  children  as  to  the 
number  of  sides  in  its  base.  What  then  may  you  say  of  the 
form  of  its  base  ?  Yes ;  it  is  a  triangle,  or  we  may  say  it  is  tri- 
angular. Then  what  kind  of  a  prism  may  we  call  this?  What 


JOF  THE 
FOKM. THIED   STEP.  Im  K  I  V  1?R  S  I 

did  we  call  the  pyramid  that  had  a  triangular  base  ?  The  children 
will  now  call  it  a  triangular  prism,  and  will  name  the  remain  in  »• 
pyramids,  as  quadrangular,  pentagonal,  hexagonal,  &c.  The 
quadrangular  prism  is  of  such  importance,  that  it  has  been  desig- 
nated by  one  word,  parallelopipedon,  to  which  the  cube  belongs* 

EXERCISES.- — 1.  Describe  a  parallelopipedon  ;  the  number  and 
kind  of  its  faces ;   how  many  angles,  edges^  corners,  &c. 

2.  Imagine  a  heptagonal  prism.      Describe  the  number  and 
kind  of  its  faces ;  how  many  angles,  edges,  corners,  &c. 

3.  Name  objects  in  and  out  of  the  room,  which  have  the  form 
of  a  prism. 


OBJECTS. 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS. 

FOR  many  years  the  sentiment  has  been  gaining  ground  in 
this  country,  that  there  is  something  to  do  in  our  schools  beside 
simply  teaching  children  to  "  read,  write,  and  cipher."  It  is  now 
very  generally  acknowledged  that  an  acquaintance  with  Nature, 
in  her  varied  forms,  is  also  an  important  educational  attainment, 
and  that  a  knowledge  of  things  does  in  its  natural  order  precede  a 
knowledge  of  words.  As  a  result  of  this  conviction,  "  Lessons 
on  Objects"  have  been  introduced  into  very  many  of  the  best 
schools  of  the  country. 

These  lessons,  however,  have  not  always  been  given  in  a  man- 
ner best  calculated  to  awaken  and  cultivate  the  early  faculties  of 
children,  and  prepare  them  for  the  study  of  Nature. 

These  first  exercises  with  children  should  be  of  a  character  cal- 
culated to  quicken  perception,  and  to  cultivate  close  and  accurate 
observation  and  expression.  For  the  teacher  to  tell  the  child  what 
she  knows  about  objects,  is  only  to  burden  the  memory,  discour- 
age investigation,  and  weaken  the  perceptive  faculties.  The  effort 
should  rather  be  to  lead  the  child  to  discover  for  himself,  and  then 
properly  to  communicate  the  result  of  his  observations.  It  is  with 
this  idea  prominently  in  view  that  the  following  sketches  and 
series  of  lessons  have  been  drawn  up. 

The  truly  successful  teacher  will  rather  use  these  as  models,  as 
conveying  an  idea  of  the  general  plan  and  method  to  be  pursued, 
and  will  not  confine  herself  either  to  the  subjects  or  exact  method 
here  laid  down.  Too  much  importance,  however,  cannot  be 


OBJECTS.  87 

attached  to  the  teacher's  having  a  definite  plan  and  aim  in  each 
lesson.  No  teacher  should  ever  go  before  her  class  without  an 
exact  sketch  of  the  lesson  she  proposes  to  give.  "Without  such 
preparation,  the  lesson  had  better  never  be  given. 

In  the  First  Step,  the  Perceptive  Faculty  is  exercised.  In  the 
earlier  lessons  the  object  is  considered  as  a  whole  j  in  the  later,  as 
possessing  parts — the  recognition  of  these  requiring  more  minute 
and  accurate  exercise  of  perception.  In  all  the  early  steps,  one 
important  aim  is  the  formation  of  a  vocabulary. 

In  the  Second  Step,  the  Perceptive  and  also  the  Conceptive 
Faculties  are  exercised.  In  the  earlier  lessons  the  object  is  con- 
sidered as  possessing  familiar  qualities  ;  in  the  later  lessons,  as  pos- 
sessing some  important  quality  which  other  objects  also  possess. 

In  the  Third  Step,  the  exercise  of  the  Perceptive  Faculties 
serves  as  the  basis  of  the  lesson,  the  superstructure  of  which  ad- 
dresses the  Conceptive,  and  especially  the  Eeasoning  Faculties. 
The  object  is  considered  in  detail,  all  its  parts  noted,  and  all  its 
qualities,  except  such  as  are  altogether  beyond  the  range  of  the 
children's  experience.  Especially  do  children  consider  the  uses 
of  the  object,  and  the  adaptation  of  structure,  material,  or  quali- 
ties to  these. 

In  this  Step  they  often  consider  two  objects  at  a  time,  com- 
paring and  contrasting  them.  A  little  information  is  often  given ; 
still  it  is  not  the  aim  of  the  teacher  to  tell  them  what  they  can 
learn  from  books,  but  rather  to  form  correct  and  thorough  habits 
of  observation,  and  develop  power  of  thought. 

In  the  Fourth  Step,  the  Faculty  of  Generalization  is  exercised, 
in  addition  to  the  other  faculties  before  named.  Objects  are  con- 
sidered in  classes  :  when  a  single  object  is  taken,  it  is  with  refer- 
ence to  art,  manufacture,  &c. 


88 


OBJECTS. 


FIRST    STEP. 
I.— Objects  Named,  Arranged,  &c. 

1.  Sketch  of  a  Lesson  on  a  Teapot,  Milk  Pitcher,  Cup,  and  Saucer. 

1.  The  teacher  should  first  ask  the  children  if  they  have  ever 
seen  such  things  as  these,  when  they  usually  see  them,  and  what 
each  of  them  is  called. 

2.  The  teacher  calls  upon  a  child  to  touch  the  teapot,  asking 
the  others  if  he  has  rightly  done  so.     The  same  may  be  done  with 
each  of  the  objects. 

3.  The  teacher  herself  touches  one  of  the  objects,  and  desires 
all  the  children  who  know  its  name  to  raise  their  hands ;  one  child 
is  afterward  selected  to  apply  the  name.     The  same  to  be  done 
with  each  of  the  objects. 

4.  The  teacher  to  remove  the  objects  out  of  sight,  and  then 
ask  the  children  what  things  she  has  been  showing  them ;    this 
test  should  be  repeated  till  they  can  correctly  mention  all  the 
objects  from  memory. 

5.  The  teacher  may  require  a  child  to  place  the  objects  in  a 
certain  order  ;  as  the  teapot  in  the  middle,  the  milk  pitcher  before 
it,  and  the  cup  in  the  saucer  behind  it ;  the  other  children  saying 
whether  it  is  correctly  done  :   they  may  then  be  desired  to  place 
all  of  them  in  a  row.     The  teacher  may  then  put  the  saucer  upon 
the  cup,  and  ask  the  children  if  that  is  its  proper  place,  and  then 
call  a  child  to  place  it  as  it  ought  to  be,  and  also  to  say  what  are 
the  proper  positions  of  the  cup  and  of  the  saucer. 

y  6.  The  teacher,  having  arranged  the  objects  in  a  certain  order, 
desiring  the  children  to  observe  how  they  are  placed,  is  to  remove 
them,  and  call  upon  some  child  to  replace  them  in  the  same  order ; 
they  may  then  be  placed  differently,  and  the  same  test  be  applied. 

7.  The  lesson  to  conclude  with  a  little  talk  about  the  objects — 
their  number  and  names  ;  their  uses ;  what  is  put  into  the  teapot, 
what  comes  out  of  it ;  what  is  put  into  the  milk  pitcher ;  how  the 
cup  is  used,  &c. 

Supposing  this  book  to  be  used  by  the  Educational  Teacher, 


OBJECTS.  89 

or  Teacher  of  Method,  in  the  instruction  of  a  class  of  students,  it 
is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  they  should  be  exercised  in  draw- 
ing up  sketches  corresponding  with  the  patterns  given. 

After  examination  of  the  above  sketch,  the  students  should 
construct  a  similar  lesson,  on  plate,  knife,  fork,  spoon,  and  glass. 


2.  Sketch  of  a  Lesson  on  a  Basket,  a  Book,  and  a  Slate. 

1.  See  that  the  children  know  these  objects  and  their  names, 
and  can  themselves  apply  the  proper  name  to  each  object. 

2.  Remove  the  basket,  book,  and  slate,  one  by  one,  and  after 
each  has  been  taken  away,  call  upon  the  children  to  say  which  it 
is ;    then  take  all  three  away,  and  let  them  say  what  the  three 
things  which  have  been  taken  away  are,  and  how  they  were 
placed  before  they  were  removed. 

3.  Call  upon  some  of  the  children  to  place  the  several  objects 
as  directed,  thus :    the  basket  in  the  middle,  the  books  nearer  to 
the  window,  and  the  slate  on  the  opposite  side.     Tell  them  to 
observe  how  they  are  placed,  and  then,  removing  them,  desire  one 
of  the  children  again  to  place  them  as  they  were. 

4.  Next  talk  about  the  uses  of  these  objects.     How  are  bas- 
kets used,  and  by  whom  ?     For  what  purposes  do  the  children 
themselves  use  them  ?     What  have  they  seen  their  mothers  do 
with  them  ?     Place  some  books  in  a  basket  in  a  neat  and  orderly 
manner,  and  then  desire  a  child  to  do  the  same  with  others ;  this 
will  teach  them  to  do  such  things  neatly  and  tidily.     Then  ask 
them  what  people  do  with  books.     Read  a  line  or  two  in  a  book, 
and  ask  what  has  been  done,  and  if  they  would  like  to  be  able 
thus  to  read.     Then  talk  about  the  slate,  by  whom  they  have  seen 
slates  used,  and  for  what  purposes. 

5.  Sum  up  the  lesson  by  asking  how  many  things  have  been 
spoken  of,  their  names,  and  the  ordinary  use  of  each  of  them. 

Students  construct  corresponding  lesson  on  shovel,  poker,  and 
tongs. 

Their  attention  should  be  drawn  to  the  general  plan  of  these 
lessons,  thus : 


90  OBJECTS. 

PLAN. 

1.  Teacher  presents  the  objects ;  ascertains  which  the  children 
can  name ;  gives  names  they  do  not  know,  always  touching  the 
object  named,  requiring  children  to  observe  it,  and  causing  the 
names  to  be  simultaneously  repeated. 

2.  Teacher  exercises  the  children  on  the  names,  by  pointing 
to  the  objects,  and  letting  the  children  name  them ;  then  by  nam- 
ing the  objects,  and  letting  the  children  touch  or  bring  them. 

The  last  part  of  the  lesson  will  vary  according  to  the  objects 
selected.  If  these  be  plate,  knife,  fork,  &c.,  the  teacher  will 
direct  attention  especially  to  the  arrangement  of  the  objects — 
where  they  would  place  the  plate,  if  they  were  going  to  set  the 
table  ?  where  the  knife  ?  where  the  fork  ?  Tongs,  poker,  &c., 
candle,  candlestick,  &c.,  would  be  treated  similarly ;  and  the 
arrangement  of  bonnet,  scarf,  &c.,  as  parts  of  dress,  show. 

In  the  lesson,  "  "Wood,  Hatchet,  Hammer,  &c.,"  the  use  of  the 
tools,  rather  than  any  arrangement  of  them,  would  be  exhibited. 
Terms  for  prominent  parts,  as  handle,  rim,  lid,  should  be  given  as 
the  parts  are  noticed  by  the  children. 

LIST  OF  SUBJECTS  FOR  SIMILAR  LESSONS. 

Plate,  knife,  fork,  spoon,  glass. 

Tongs,  poker,  shovel,  hearth  brush. 

Candle,  candlestick,  extinguisher,  tray,  snuffers. 

Bonnet,  veil,  scarf,  gloves,  parasol.  * 

Needle,  thimble,  thread,  calico,  scissors. 

Pen,  ink,  paper,  blotting  book,  pen  wiper. 

Penknife,  pencil,  ruler,  India  rubber. 

Wood,  hatchet,  hammer,  gimlet,  nail. 

Clay,  stone,  sponge,  wool,  string. 

II— Objects  for  Parts. 

Including  the  consideration  of — 

1.  Names  and  Number  of  Parts. 

2.  Position  of  Parts. 


OBJECTS. 


91 


3.  Uses  of  Parts. 

4.  Principal,  distinguished  from  Secondary  Parts. 

Any  one  or  two  of  these  points  may  be  taken  up  in  a  lesson, 
which  one  or  two  will  generally  depend  on  the  subject. 


1.  Sketch  on  a  Thimble,  for  Parts.     (Pattern  Lesson.) 

Uses  of  parts. 
Names  of  parts. 


MATTER. 


I. — A  thimble  has 
a  crown,  a  shield,  cells, 
a  border,  and  a  rim. 


II— 1.  The  crown, 
so  called  because  it  is 
the  top  part  of  the 
thimble. 


2.  The  shield  is  so 
called  because  it  keeps 
the  finger  from  being 
hurt. 

3.  The  cells  are  so 


METHOD. 

I. — Teacher  presents  a  thimble.  Se- 
lects a  child  to  touch  a  part.  Asks  the 
children  to  name  it,  and  when  they  fail, 
gives  name,  which  is  simultaneously  re- 
peated (S.  K.)  by  the  children,  and  writ- 
ten on  the  board  (W.  B.).  Teacher  se- 
lects second  child  to  touch  a  second  part, 
and  proceeds  as  before,  until  all  the  parts 
are  distinguished  and  named. 

Children  read  the  names  from  the  board. 
Teacher  erases  these,  and  children  give 
them  again  in  order  from  the  top  to  the 
bottom  of  the  thimble. 

II. — 1.  Teacher  exercises  the  children 
on  the  appropriateness  of  the  names. 
Child  to  touch  the  crown.  Why  the 
upper  part  is  so  called.  What  crowns 
are.  Where  they  are  worn.  A  part  of 
the  head  is  called  a  crown.  Teacher  bids 
a  child  touch  crown,  and  then  touch  some 
higher  part.  Why  he  cannot  comply  with 
the  latter  command.  The  top  part  of  the 
head  is  called  the  crown,  and  a  part  of  the 
thimble  is  called  the  crown,  because  it  is 
the  top  part. 

2.  A  child  to  touch  the  shield.     Teach- 
er shows  the  picture  of  a  soldier  with  a 
sword  and  shield.     Children  state  use  of 
the  sword — of  the  shield,   and  why  this 
part  of  the  thimble  is  so  called. 

3.  Child    to  touch    the   cells;    show 


92  OBJECTS. 


called  because  they  re- 
semble the  cells  of  the 
honeycomb. 

4.  The  border  is  so 
called  because  it  is  an 
ornament  near  the 
edge. 


honeycomb  and  its  cells.  Children  say 
why  the  holes  in  the  thimble  are  called 
cells  also. 

4.  A  child  to  touch  the  border.      Its 
position  referred  to  (near  the  edge).    Chil- 
dren mention  any  borders  they  have  seen 
on  any  objects,  as  on  handkerchiefs,  shawls, 
&c.     Where  these  are  placed.     Why  peo- 
ple have  borders.     Why  this  part  of  the 
thimble  is  so  called. 

5.  A  child  to  touch  the  only  remaining 
part — the  rim — and  give  examples  of  rims 
on  other  objects. 

NOTE. — Nothing  is  said  about  the  inside,  outside,  &c.,  as  dis- 
tinct parts.  It  is  undesirable  to  mix  up  the  consideration  of  geo- 
metrical with  that  of  material  parts ;  it  tends  to  confuse  the  chil- 
dren. Students  construct  sketch  on  "  Penknife,"  as  "  Thimble." 

The  Teacher  of  Method  might  next  require  the  class  of  stu- 
dents to  work  out  exercises  on  an  apple,  thus : — 

Find  the  matter  under  the  heads. 
Parts  found  and  named. 
Position  of  parts  described. 


2.  Example  of  Sketch  on  an  Apple. 

MATTER. — I.  Parts  of  an  apple. 

The  parts  of  the  apple  are  pulp,  core,  seeds,  peel,  eye,  dimple, 
and  stem. 

II. — Position  of  parts. 

The  peel  covers  the  apple. 

The  pulp  is  inside  the  peel. 

The  core  is  in  the  centre  of  the  apple  or  pulp. 

The  seeds  are  enclosed  in  the  core. 

The  dimple  is  at  the  base  of  the  apple. 

The  stem  is  at  the  base,  and  partly  within  the  dimple. 

The  eye  is  at  the  top  of  the  apple. 


OBJECTS.  .93 

Teacher  of  Method  next  requires  the  class  to  find  the  method 
corresponding. 

Exercise. 

METHOD. — I.  1.  Show  an  apple.  Get  the  name,  and  after  a 
little  talk  about  the  use,  where  it  grows,  &c.,  desire  a  child  to  touch 
a  part  (the  skin).  Give  the  term  peel.  Children  to  say  what  part 
of  the  apple  they  like  best.  How  we  are  to  get  at  this.  "Whether, 
before  this  is  done,  they  can  find  any  other  part  by  looking  at  the 
outside  (the  speck  or  bud).  Give  the  term  eye  (the  little  hole). 
Tell  them  there  is  a  better  name — dimple.  The  little  dent  in  the 
apple  is  also  called  dimple.  What  part  is  near  the  dimple? 
(Stem.)  Children  name  all  the  outside  parts  of  the  apple. 
(W.  B.  S.  R.) 

2.  Children  allowed  to  name  all  the  inside  parts.  Apple  cut 
and  examined,  to  prove  whether  they  are  right.  (W.  B.  S.  B.) 

II. — Bring  out  the  position  of  the  peel,  by  asking  why  they 
could  not  see  the  pulp  of  the  apple  before  we  cut  it  open. 

Position  of  pulp,  core,  and  seeds  brought  out  by  direct  ques- 
tions. Children  led  to  express  themselves  properly,  and  S.  R. 
Idea  of  base  developed  by  making  the  children  ascertain  on  what 
part  the  apple  will  stand  best.  If  necessary,  remove  the  stem. 
Let  them  find  the  parts  near  the  base.  (The  dimple  and  the  stem.) 
Only  one  part  left — where  is  it  ?  Not  at  the  base,  but  at  the  other 
end  of  the  apple.  Give  the  expression,  opposite  the  base. 

Summary. — Teacher  names  the  position  by  requiring  children 
to  fill  up  the  ellipses  by  naming  the  parts,  thus :  Outside  the  pulp 

is .  Under  the  peel  is .  In  the  midst  of  the  pulp 

is .  Within  the  core  are .  At  the  base  is  the 

.  Partly  within  the  dimple,  and  at  the  base,  is  the . 

Opposite  the  base  is  the . 


Students  construct  the  "Penknife"  as  the  "Apple." 

3.  Sketch  on  a  SMI     (Pattern.) 

For  Names  of  Parts. 

Principal,  distinguished  from  Secondary  Parts. 
Position  of  Parts. 


94:  OBJECTS. 

I.— Parts. 

1.  Introductory. — Object  named,   where  found,  and  of  what 
use. 

2.  Parts  distinguished  and  named.      Teacher  directs  the  chil- 
dren to  find  the  largest  part  of  the  shell.     Excites  interest  by  tell- 
ing them  that  they  can  find  out  the  name  of  this  part.     What  they 
call  the  largest  part  of  themselves.     (The  body.)     (S.  R.)  :   "The 
largest  part  of  the  shell  is  called  the  body."     The  part  of  shell 
next  in  size  pointed  out.     Children  told  they  can  find  a  name  for 
this  also ;    they  must  not,  however,  look  at  themselves  for  the 
name,  but  at  the  buildings  out  of  doors.     Set  the  shell  on  its  base, 
and  ask,  What  part  of  any  building  goes  up  like  this  ?     The  spire 
of  a  church.    (S.  R.)  :   "  The  next  largest  part  of  the  shell  is  called 
the  spire"     Terms  body  and  spire  written  on  the  blackboard. 

II. — 1.  Children  have  next  to  find  the  parts  of  the  body — 
mouth,  lips,  beak.  Teacher  gives  the  names,  writes  them  on  the 
board,  and  requires  the  children  to  say  why  these  names  are 
given. 

2.  Next,  children  find  the  parts  of  the  spire — whorls,  sutures, 
and  apex.  Teacher  gives  the  first  and  second  terms.  (S.  R.) 
With  respect  to  the  third  term,  if  they  have  had  lessons  on  Form, 
she  bids  them  select  a  solid  that  has  a  part  like  this  part  of  the 
shell,  telling  them  that  the  same  name  is  given  to  each.  They 
read  what  is  written  on  the  board,  which  appears  thus : — 


r  Mouth, 
Body,  -J  Lips, 
(  Beak. 


(  Whorls, 
Spire,  •]  Sutures, 
(  Apex. 


III. — Position  of  Parts. 

Children  led  to  describe  the  position  of  principal  parts  with 
respect  to  each  other,  and  the  position  of  secondary  parts  with 
respect  to  principal,  or  to  each  other,  as  may  be  most  convenient, 
thus  : — The  spire  is  at  one  end  of  the  body ;  the  mouth  is  in  the 
under  part  of  the  body ;  lips  around  the  mouth ;  beak  proceeds 
from  the  mouth,  and  is  at  the  end  of  the  body  opposite  the  spire. 
Whorls  surround  the  spire ;  sutures  are  between  the  whorls ; 
apex  is  at  the  end  of  the  spire. 


OBJECTS.  95 

If  time  allow,  these  questions  should  be  varied,  as,  "Where  are 
the  whorls  with  respect  to  the  apex  and  the  body  ?  or  this  may 
be  done  in  recapitulation  next  day. 

Summary. — Parts  given  from  memory.  Position  given  from 
memory,  if  children  are  quite  advanced,  and  about  ready  to  enter 
the  next  Step. 

Students  finally  required  to  construct  the  "  Penknife,"  as  the 
"  Shell." 

Students  write  sketch  on  "  Bunch  of  Grapes,"  according  to  the 
following  heads  and  directions  written  on  the  blackboard : — 

4.  A  Buncli  of  Grapes. 

1.  Parts  found  and  named.     (Lead  children  to  distinguish  the 
principal  parts  first,  then  the  secondary.) 

2.  Position  of  Parts.     (Of  the  principal  parts  with  respect  to 
each  other.     Next  take  the  secondary  parts  of  the  stem ;  next  of 
the  berry.) 

While  considering  the  position  of  the  principal  parts  with  re- 
spect to  each  other,  develop  the  idea  of  u  cluster." 

PLAN. 

Children  must  discover  the  parts  for  themselves,  and  at  first 
may  do  so  in  any  order,  teacher  putting  them  down  in  the  order 
of  discovery.  She  rearranges  them  in  proper  order,  accord- 
ing to  direction  of  children,  either  at  once  or  at  the  close  of  the 
lesson.  See  "  Sketch  on  the  Thimble." 

It  is  important  that  children  should  be  accustomed  to  recog- 
nize that  there  is  an  order  ;  that  "  any  way"  will  not  do. 

When  the  ideas  of  principal  and  secondary  parts  have  been 
developed,  children  may  be  told  to  find  the  secondary  parts  of 
one  principal  part  first,  then  the  secondary  part  of  another  prin- 
cipal part,  putting  them  down  as  found.  This  saves  time.  See 
"  Sketch  on  Shell." 

Children  should  be  encouraged  to  give  any  names  of  parts 
they  know,  teacher  supplying  the  rest  when  arbitrary ;  but,  when 


96  OBJECTS. 

the  name  is  suggested  by  any  circumstance  or  quality  not  beyond 
the  knowledge  of  the  children,  it  will  be  well  to  help  them  discover 
the  name.  Or  she  may  give  the  name,  and  let  the  children  say 
why  given. 

EXAMPLES    OF    NAMES   WHICH    MAY   BE    FOUND    BY    CHILDREN. 

Bluebell.  Body,  spire,  and  beak  (of  a  shell). 

Handle.  Dimple  (of  an  apple). 

Bowl  (of  a  spoon).         Ribs  (of  an  umbrella). 

Use  of  parts  should  be  shown  by  children  whenever  possible. 
Position  and  uses  not  usually  written  on  the  board. 

LIST   OF   SUBJECTS   FOB   PARTS. 

Watch.  Table.  Spade. 

"Wheel.  Chair.  Fruit. 

Shoe.  Pail.  Articles  of  jewelry. 

Carpenter's  tools.  Kitchen  utensils. 
(Refer  also  to  list  on  page      .) 


SECOND    STEP. 

In  this  Step  the  children  are  led  to  distinguish  between  the 
object  and  its  qualities. 

I. — An  object  is  distinguished  by  its  most  simple  and  familiar 
qualities. 

II. — The  idea  of  one  essential  and  distinctive  quality  is  sys- 
tematically developed. 

I,    Simple  and  Common  Qualities  of  Objects. 

As  an  example  of  a  lesson  on  an  object  distinguished  by  its 
most  simple  and  common  qualities,  take — 

1.    Water.     (Pattern.) 

What  is  in  this  cup?     Water.     (Teacher  pours  a  little  on  a 
piece  of  paper,  or  of  linen.)     What  has  the  water  done  to  the 


OBJECTS.  97 

paper?  Made  it  wet.  Now  observe  me.  (Teacher  pours  it  out 
in  drops.}  Does  it  hold  together,  now  that  I  pour  it  out  little  by 
little  ?  'No ;  it  forms  itself  into  drops.  Tell  me,  then,  how 
the  water  is  unlike  the  flint.  The  flint  does  not  make  the  paper 
wet.  It  does  not  form  itself  into  drops.  Anything  you  can  pour 
out  so  as  to  form  it  into  drops,  is  called  a  liquid.  What,  then, 
can  you  say  of  water  ?  Water  is  a  liquid.  Tell  me  some  other 
liquids.  Beer,  milk,  &c.  Now  look  into  the  cup  of  water ;  what 
do  you  see  ?  We  see  a  mark  at  the  bottom  of  the  cup.  Here  is 
another  cup  with  the  same  mark  at  the  bottom ;  look  at  it.  ( The 
teacher  pours  in  a  little  milk.)  Look  at  the  mark  again.  We 
cannot  see  it  now.  Why  not  ?  You  have  covered  it  with  milk. 
But  the  mark  in  this  cup  is  covered  by  water,  and  yet  you  see  it  ; 
how  is  this  ?  We  can  see  through  the  water.  What,  then,  can 
you  say  of  water?  We  can  see  through  water.  Find  some 
other  thing  in  the  room  that  you  can  see  through.  The  glass. 
Look  at  the  water  again,  and  find  out  something  more  that  you 
can  say  of  it.  It  shines.  Yes ;  it  is  bright.  All  of  you  repeat, 
"  Water  is  bright."  What  color  is  the  flint?  Black.  What 
can  you  say  of  the  water  ?  Look  at  these  colors  (showing  a  red 
wafer,  green  leaf,  &c.).  Which  of  these  is  the  water  like  in  color? 
None  of  them,  teacher.  What,  then,  must  we  say  of  it?  Water 
has  no  color.  (The  teacher  calls  upon  some  of  the  children  to  taste 
the  water.)  What  do  you  observe  ?  It  is  cold.  What  taste  do 
you  perceive  ? — you  cannot  tell  me.  Has  it  any  taste  ?  No. 
What,  then,  can  you  say  of  it  ?  It  has  no  taste.  Repeat  to- 
gether, "  Water  has  no  taste." 

What  use  have  you  made  of  water  to-day  ?  We  have  washed 
ourselves  with  it.  What  quality  of  water  makes  it  useful  for 
washing  ?  Its  being  liquid.  Beer  is  also  a  liquid  ;  why  do  you 
not  wash  in  beer  ?  We  should  smell  the  beer.  Then  you  pre- 
fer water  for  washing,  because  it  has  no  smell.  What  other  objec- 
tion is  there  against  washing  in  beer?  It  would  not  make  us 
clean ;  it  would  leave  a  brown  stain.  Why,  then,  is  water  a 
proper  liquid  to  use  for  washing  ?  Because  it  has  neither  smell 
nor  color,  and  it  cleanses  from  dirt.  When  are  you  very  glad  to 
be  able  to  have  water  ?  When  we  are  thirsty.  Tell  me,  then, 
5 


98  OBJECTS. 

another  use  of  water.  It  is  useful  for  drinking.  "Water,  you  see, 
is  essential  to  every  one ;  can  you  tell  me  some  liquids  that  we 
might  do  without  ?  Yes  ;  beer  and  gin.  But  what  can  we  say 
of  water  ?  *  What  can  we  most  easily  procure  ?  Water.  Yes ; 
and  as  every  one  needs  water,  God  has  kindly  supplied  every 
country  with  it  in  abundance. 

Eepeat  together  what  you  have  found  out  about  water. 
"  Water  is  a  liquid  ;  we  can  see  through  it ;  it  is  bright ;  it  has 
no  color,  nor  any  taste,  nor  any  smell ;  it  is  cold ;  it  is  used  for 
washing  and  for  drinking ;  and  because  water  is  necessary  to  man, 
God  has  given  to  every  country  an  abundant  supply."  f 

Students  construct  lesson  on  "  Milk,"  as  "  Water." 

2.  Lead. 

What  is  this  ?  Lead.  Can  any  of  you  tell  me  where  lead 
comes  from  ?  Does  it  come  from  an  animal  ?  Is  it  part  of  a 
plant  ?  Where,  then,  does  it  come  from  ?  It  comes  out  of  the 
earth.  God  has  not  only  given  us  animals  and  vegetables  to  be 
useful  to  us,  but  he  has  stored  up  in  the  earth  a  great  many  things 
for  our  use :  tell  me  one  of  them.  Lead.  Now  take  this  lead 
into  your  hand ;  what  do  you  find  ?  It  is  heavy.  Look  at  it, 
and  tell  me  what  you  see.  Part  of  it  is  very  bright,  where  it  has 
just  been  cut.  And  what  is  it  everywhere  else  ?  Dull.  Repeat, 
"  Lead,  when  freshly  cut,  is  bright ;  when  it  has  been  some  time 
in  the  air,  it  becomes  dull."  Look  at  it  again.  It  is  gray.  Now 
feel  it.  It  is  hard.  When  you  touch  it,  you  find  it  hard  ;  but 
-look,  what  am  I  doing?  Cutting  it.  Lead,  to  the  touch,  is  hard, 
but  it  is  easily  cut.  I  put  some  of  it  into  water  ;  what  happened 
to  the  lead  when  I  put  it  into  the  water  ?  It  fell  to  the  bottom. 
Would  the  feather  have  done  so  ?  No.  Why  did  the  lead  sink  ? 

*  The  teacher  might  remark  upon  the  goodness  of  God  in  abundantly  sup- 
plying every  one  everywhere  with  that  liquid  which  is  essential  to  comfort; 
whilst  the  noxious  spirit  is  obtained  by  art  and  labor,  and  at  great  cost. 

t  It  is  most  desirable  that  children  should  be  early  taught  to  write,  or  print; 
and  printing  on  their  slates  all  they  can  recollect  of  their  lessons,  forms  a  most 
improving  exercise.  In  mixed  schools  this  would  furnish  employment  to  one 
set  of  children  while  the  teacher  is  engaged  with  another. 


OBJECTS.  99 

Because  it  is  heavy.  Did  you  know  it  was  heavy  before  you  saw 
it  sink  ?  Yes  ;  we  felt  it  heavy  in  our  hands. 

Is  there  any  child  here  whose  father  works  in  lead  ?  Yes  ;* 
John's  father  works  in  lead.  What  is  he  called  ?  A  plumber. 
People  who  work  in  lead  are  called  plumbers.  Well,  John,  tell 
us  what  your  father  does  with  lead.  He  makes  windows.  What 
sort  of  windows — those  like  the  windows  of  this  school  room  ? 
No  }  windows  made  with  little  bits  of  glass.  Where  do  you  gen- 
erally see  such  windows — in  large  houses,  or  in  small  ones? 
What  is  the  use  of  the  lead  in  windows  such  as  these  ?  It  fastens 
the  pieces  of  glass  together.  What  have  our  windows  for  this 
purpose  ?  Wood.  And  what  is  used  to  fasten  the  glass  to  the 
wood  ?  Putty.  But  in  church  windows,  what  is  sometimes  used  ? 
Lead.  Yes ;  lead  is  used  to  fasten  the  glass  together.  Now, 
John,  what  other  use  does  your  father  make  of  lead  ?  He  makes 
pipes.  All  who  can  tell  me  what  is  the  use  of  leaden  pipes,  hold 
up  their  hands.  To  convey  water.  Yes  ;  to  convey  water  from 
one  place  to  another.  Who  can  tell  me  any  other  use  of  lead  ? 
It  is  used  for  cisterns.  What  is  the  use  of  cisterns  ?  They  hold 
water.  What  use  do  fishermen  make  of  lead  ?  They  put  it  on 
their  nets.  Why  ?  To  make  one  edge  of  the  net  sink  in  the 
water.  Why  does  the  lead  make  that  part  of  the  net  sink  ?  Be- 
cause it  is  very  heavy. 

Well,  now  repeat  all  you  have  said  about  lead.  "  Lead  comes 
out  of  the  earth ;  when  it  is  freshly  cut  it  is  very  bright ;  but  after 
it  has  been  in  the  air  for  some  time,  it  becomes  dull ;  it  is  very 
heavy ;  its  color  is  gray  ;  it  is  hard  to  the  touch,  but  it  is  easily 
cut ;  when  put  into  water,  it  sinks  ;  people  who  work  in  lead  are 
called  plumbers ;  they  use  it  to  fasten  together  the  glass  of  church 

rndows  ;   to  make  pipes  to  convey  water,  and  cisterns  of  lead  to 
Id  it.     Lead  is  also  used  in  fishermen's  nets." 
Students  construct  lesson  on  "  Wood,"  as  "  Lead." 
Attention  of  students  should  be  directed  to  the  general  plan 

*  It  may  be  that  the  child  of  a  plumber  is  present  at  the  lesson ;  it  must 
occasionally  happen  that  some  have  seen  the  materials  brought  before  them  at 
school,  used  by  their  parents  or  others.  A  teacher  should  always  make  the  most 
of  any  information  the  children  may  already  possess. 


100  OBJECTS. 

of  these  lessons.     The  children  are  led  to  notice  first  the  qualities, 
then  the  uses,  and  lastly  those  qualities  on  which  the  uses  depend. 

LIST    OF    OBJECTS. 

This  it  is  unnecessary  to  give,  as  any  common  objects  will  do. 

LIST    OF    QUALITIES    TO    BE    DEVELOPED    AT    THIS    STEP. 

Simple  qualities  referring  to  Substance ;  as,  hard,  soft,  tough,  brittle, 

liquid,  &c. 

"  "         Surface ;  as,  rough,  smooth,  plane,  flat. 

"  "  Condition ;  as,  hot,  cold,  cool,  warm, 

dry,  moist,  full,  empty. 

"  "  Shape;  as,  tapering,  pointed,  rounded, 

jagged,  broken,  torn,  &c. 

"  "  Direction;  as,  straight,  curved,  crook- 

ed. See  "  Lessons  on  Form." 

"  "  Size ;  as,  large,  small,  thin,  thick,  deep, 

shallow,  etc. 

"  "  Color ;  as,  red,  blue,  green.  See 

11  Lessons  on  Color." 

"  "          Number ;  as,  one,  two,  &c.,  up  to  ten. 

After  a  course  of  these  lessons,  the  children,  being  made  ac- 
quainted with  common  objects  and  their  common  qualities,  may 
receive  a  few  recapitulatory  lessons  on  several  of  these  in  combi- 
nation. 

EXAMPLE. 

3.    Sketch  of  a  Lesson  on  "Distinguishing  Objects  by  their 
Qualities." 

I.  Introduction. — Bring  before  the  children  a  large,  round,  ripe 
apple — a  sheet  of  thin,  smooth,  pink  paper — a  slender,  pointed 
cedar  pencil — a  piece  of  narrow,  blue  silk  ribbon — an  oblong, 
shallow  wooden  box — a  square,  white  linen  pocket  handkerchief. 
Let  the  children  give  the  name  of  each  object,  teacher  writing  the 
initial  letter  of  each  on  the  board  as  given,  and  requiring  children 
to  say  what  each  letter  stands  for. 


OBJECTS.  101 

II.  Ideas  Developed. — Teacher  requires  the  children  to  say 
something  of  the  apple  as  to  size  (large) ;  as  to  shape  (round) ;  as 
to  fitness  for  food  (ripe).  How  other  apples  may  be  unlike  this. 
What  we  can  say  of  this  apple.  (It  is  a  large,  round,  ripe  apple.) 
Children  to  describe  the  paper  as  to  texture  (thin)  ;  as  to  surface 
(smooth)  ;  as  to  color  (pink).  Other  papers  mentioned  unlike 
this — tissue,  brown,  &c.  How  we  can  describe  this  sheet  of 
paper.  (It  is  a  sheet  of  thin,  smooth,  pink  paper.)  Children  to 
describe  the  pencil,  as  to  girth  (slender).  Compare  with  thicker 
pencil,  as- to  condition  (pointed).  Compare  with  uncut  one,  as  to 
material  (wood  and  lead).  Tell  them  the  wood  is  called  cedar. 

Proceed  in  this  way  with  the  remaining  objects. 

Summary. — Children  to  name  the  objects  from  the  board,  and 
describe  them  from  memory. 

Students  select  six  objects,  upon  which  they  construct  a  similar 
sketch. 

II.    Essential  and  Distinctive  Qualities  of  Objects. 

For  the  idea  of  one  essential  and  distinctive  quality  sys- 
tematically developed,  take — 

1.  Sketch  on  the  Development  of  the  Idea  of  Adhesive  Gum, 
for  Adhesive. 

MATTER. 

1.  Gum  will  stick. 

2.  Gum  is  therefore 
said  to  be  adhesive. 

.  Glue,  melted  seal- 
wax,  and  molasses, 
also  adhesive. 
.  All  things  that 
will  stick  to  other  ob- 
jects, are  said  to  be 
adhesive. 

Students  construct  sketch  on  "Idea  of  Inflammable,"  as  "Ad- 
hesive." 


4 


METHOD. 


1.  Show  this  by  experiment  with  post- 
age stamp. 

2.  Term  given.     Questioned  on.    S.  R. 
and  W.  B. 

3.  Such  examples  found   by  the  chil- 
dren. 

4.  Children  led  to   draw  this   general 
conclusion,  which  is  committed  to  mem- 
ory. 


102  OBJECTS. 

Toward  the  close  of  this  Step,  two  or  three  qualities  connected, 
or  contrasted,  may  be  taken  together. 


EXAMPLE. 

2.  Idea  of  Transparent,  Semi-transparent,  and  Translucent. 

1.  Bring  before  the  children  a  piece  of  glass  and  a  key.    Hold 
the  key  behind  a  slate,  also  behind  the  piece  of  glass,  and  require 
them  to  notice  the  difference.     "What  they  can  say  of  the  glass, 
that  they  cannot  say  of  the  slate.     Give  the  term  that  distin- 
guishes things  we  can  see  through,  and  let  the  children  repeat, 
"  Glass,  because  we  can  see  through  it,  is  said  to  be  transparent." 
Require  them  to  give  examples  of  things  they  can  see  through,  as 
well  as  through  glass ;  also  what  such  things  are  said  to  be. 

2.  Place  a  knife  with  a  white  handle  in  some  tea,  and  again 
behind  the  glass.     "What  the  glass  shows  about  the  knife,  which 
the  tea  does  not  (the  color).     Lead  them  to  recognize  that  they 
can  clearly  see  through  the  glass,  but  only  partly  through  the  tea. 
Refer  again  to  the  term  which  distinguishes  things  through  which 
we  can  clearly  see,  and  let  them  try  to  find  a  term  for  anything 
through  which  we  can  partly  see.     Give  the  term,  thus :  Tea,  be- 
cause we  can  see  partly  through  it,  is  said  to  be  semi-transparent. 
Explain  the  meaning  of  semi.     Get  examples  of  both  terms,  to 
be  written  on  the  board. 

3.  Place  the  knife  behind  a  china  plate.     Children  to  say  how 
it  looks.    (They  cannot  see  it  at  all.)    Hold  the  plate,  with  the  knife 
behind  it,  opposite  the  window ;    the  shape  of  the  knife  can  be 
seen.     Explain  to  the  children  that  the  light  can  pass  through  the 
plate,  except  where  the  knife  stops  its  passage.     "What  they  can 
say  of  the  knife.    (It  is  opaque — idea  previously  developed.)    What 
they  can  say  of  the  plate.     We  can  see  light  through  it.     Give 
the  term  translucent,  with  definition.     Get  examples,  and  write 
on  the  board  as  before. 

Summary. — Children  say  how  well  they  can  see  through 
anything  transparent  (clearly).  What  they  cannot  see  through 
anything  which  is  semi-transparent  (color).  What  only  they  can 


OBJECTS.  103 

see  through  anything  which  is  translucent  (form).  In  conclusion, 
give  the  general  definition  of  each  term. 

Students  construct  sketch  on  three  kinds  of  Roundness  (Globu- 
lar, Cylindrical,  and  Circular),  as  sketch  on  "  Transparent,"  &c. 

As  a  final  exercise,  the  children  may  be  tested  in  discovering 
objects  by  the  mention  of  their  qualities.  Teacher  says  :  I  have 
something  hidden  in  my  hand  (a  blade  of  grass).  It  is  long  ;  it 
is  narrow  ;  it  is  pointed  at  one  end  ;  it  is  flexible  ;  fibrous ;  vege- 
table ;  green.  Speaking  thus,  the  teacher  pauses  between  each 
term,  allowing  the  children  to  judge  as  she  proceeds,  and  making 
them  name  the  quality  which  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  object. 
Sealing  wax  : — It  is  long ;  it  is  smooth ;  it  is  colored ;  it  is  inflam- 
mable ;  fusible  ;  impressible.  Drinking  glass : — It  is  bright ;  it  is 
hard ;  smooth ;  sonorous ;  hollow,  and  transparent.  Judgment 
must  be  shown  in  putting  the  more  general  qualities  first,  and  the 
more  special  afterward. 

LIST    FOR   DEVELOPING    IDEAS  AS   TO  -THE    QUALITIES  OF  OBJECTS. 

Paper,  as  being  .  .  .  Inflammable. 

.    Leather      ....  Tough. 

Glass    .  Brittle. 

Cotton        ....  Soft. 

Cork     .....  Light. 

Card  or  Cane,  String  .  .  Flexible. 

Cloth    .....  Pliable. 

"Whalebone,  India  rubber,  Sponge  .  Elastic. 

"Water  ....  Liquid. 

"Wood         ....  Solid. 

Loaf  Sugar       ....  Sparkling. 

A  Mirror,  or  "Water,  .  .  Reflective. 

Sponge    •  .  .  .  Absorbent. 

Bread          ....  Porous. 

Chalk   .  .  _    .  .  Crumbling. 

Flax  and  Hemp      .  .  .  Fibrous. 

Gum     .....  Soluble. 

Lead  Fusible. 


104:  OBJECTS. 

Oil-skin  ....  Water-proof. 

Leather      ....  Durable. 

Sealing-wax     ....  Impressible. 

Glue  ....  Adhesive. 

Camphor  ....  Odorous. 

Lavender    .  Fragrant. 

Horn  or  Gum  .  Semi-transparent. 

Cloves      .   .  *.  .  .  Aromatic. 

"Water .....  Tasteless. 

Ginger        ....  Pungent. 

Salt  or  Sand     ....  Granular. 

LIST    OF   CONNECTED    OB   CONTBASTED    QUALITIES,  FOB   BECAPITU- 

LATION. 

1.  Soft,  hard,  tough. 

2.  Light,  heavy,  buoyant. 

3.  Rough,  smooth,  polished,  adhesive. 

4.  Stiff,  pliable,  flexible,  elastic. 

5.  Brittle,  rotten,  fragile,  friable,  pulverable. 

6.  Fibrous,  granulous. 

7.  Inflammable,  fusible,  soluble. 

8.  Porous,  absorbent,  waterproof. 


THIRD    STEP. 

In  this  Step  a  more  thorough  examination  of  the  object  is 
made.     We  consider 

Parts,  Qualities,  Uses. 
Adaptation  of  Qualities  to  Use. 

Qualities  as  discovered  by  the  senses,  or  by  simple  ex- 
periment. 

The  less  obvious  Qualities. 
Qualities  as  depending  on  one  another. 
Adaptation  of  Material  or  Structure  to  Use. 


OBJECTS. 


105 


Sometimes  two  objects  are  taken  for  comparison  in  respect  to 
any  of  these  points. 

In  this  Step,  as  the  subjects  of  the  lessons  go  beyond  the  range 
of  the  child's  immediate  experience,  some  information  may  be 
given.  Let  it  be  remembered;  however,  that  the  mind  of  the  child 
may  be  exercised  as  much  on  information  given  him  by  the  teach- 
er, as  on  anything  he  can  discover  for  himself.  The  teacher  who 
tells  the  child  a  fact,  requires  him  to  state  the  cause,  or  the  effect, 
or  some  other  relation.  For  everything  told  to  the  pupil,  the 
latter  should  be  required  in  return  to  tell  something  bearing  on 
what  has  been  told  to  him.  Tell  him  that  a  substance  cast  into 
the  form  of  a  hollow  cylinder  is  stronger  than  the  same  quantity 
of  matter  in  a  solid  form ;  let  him  say  why  the  barrel  of  a  quill 
is  hollow,  and  not  solid.  Tell  him  what  places  the  kingfisher  fre- 
quents, and  let  him  infer  the  character  of  its  food.  Tell  him  that 
the  fur  of  animals  thickens  at  a  certain  period  of  the  year ;  let 
him  discover  when  and  why.  Tell  him  that  the  concentric  circles 
in  the  trunk  of  a  tree  are  not  equal  in  diameter ;  let  him  find 
any  circumstances  likely  to  account  for  the  fact. 


1.   Sketch  on  an  Egg. 

Point. — Parts,  qualities,  uses,  and  qualities  on  which  the  uses 
depend. 


I.  Parts.—  The  parts 
of  an  egg  are  the  shell, 
lining,  albumen,  en- 
velope, air  bag,  and 
yelk. 


II.    Qualities. — The 
shell    is    oval,    white, 


I.  Parts. — Show  an  egg,  and  let  the 
children  name  its  parts.  Break  the  egg, 
and  show  each  part,  correcting  any  errors 
they  have  made.  Let  the  children  ob- 
serve how  these  parts  are  placed  with  re- 
spect to  each  other :  i.  e.,  the  shell  is  out- 
side, the  lining  is  inside  the  shell,  &c. 
Write  the  parts,  and  their  position,  on  the 
board.  Draw  the  term  lining  from  the 
children.  Give  the  terms  albumen,  air 
lag,  envelope. 

II.    Qualities. — Develop  oval,  by  com- 
paring the  egg  with  a  sphere.     Develop 


106 


OBJECTS. 


hardness ,  by  comparing  it  with  an  orange. 
Brittle,  by  referring  to  the  experiment  of 
breaking  the  egg  just  performed.  Develop 
translucent,  semi-transparent,  and  opaque 
together,  by  comparing  the  different  parts 
of  the  egg  one  with  another,  but  apply  the 
terms  separately  to  the  proper  substances. 
Develop  semi-fluid,  by  comparison  of  a 
solid  and  a  fluid.  Write  the  qualities  on 
the  board. 

III. — Draw  fron;  the  children,  by  ques- 
tions, the  uses  of  eggs,  and  the  qualities 
on  which  the  uses  depend.  By  compari- 
son of  eggs  as  prepared  for  our  food,  and 
for  that  of  little  birds,  lead  them  to  see 
that  birds  must  have  a  much  stronger 
digestion  than  we.  From  the  use  made 
of  the  albumen,  let  them  say  what  quality 
it  must  possess.  This  will  prepare  them 
for  the  next  question — why  we  put  eggs 
into  puddings  ?  We  need  not  make  a 
thick,  heavy  paste  of  flour :  a  little  flour 
will  do,  or  even  crumbled  bread,  when  we 
have  enough  eggs. 


hard,  opaque,  and  brit- 
tle. The  lining  is  trans- 
lucent, white,  thin, 
and  tough.  The  al- 
bumen is  semi-trans- 
parent, adhesive,  and 
liquid.  The  yelk  is 
yellow,  opaque,  and 
semi-fluid. 

III.  Uses,  and  quali- 
ties on  which  uses  de- 
pend.— Eggs  are  used 
as  food  for  man,  and 
then  must  be  lightly 
cooked,  or  we  should 
not  readily  digest  them. 
As  food  for  young 
birds,  they  must  be 
boiled  hard  like  leather. 

Eggs  are  put  into 
cakes  and  puddings, 
because  adhesive  and 
light.  The  albumen 
is  used  to  mend  china 
and-  glass,  because  ad- 
hesive. The  shells 
are  good  for  fowls  to 
mix  with  their  food. 

Summary. — Read  from  the  board,  and  repeated  from  memory. 
Students  construct  sketch  on  "  Peach,"  as  the  "  Egg." 


2.  Sketch  on  Comparison  of  Orange  and  Apple. 

Point. — Parts,   qualities,    uses,   and    qualities  on   which   uses 
depend. 


I.  Resemblances. 

1.  Qualities.  Both 
are  natural,  vegetable, 
juicy,  (nearly)  spheri- 


METHOD. 

I.  Resemblances. 

1.  That    these    fruits    are    natural, 


is 


brought  out  by  reference  to  the  works  of 
G-od  and  man,  children  giving  examples. 


OBJECTS. 


107 


cal,    wholesome,    and 
pleasant  to  the  taste. 


2.  Parts.  Both 
have  seeds  in  the 
midst,  peel,  and  pulp. 

II.  Differences. 

1.  Pulp.     The  pulp 
of  an  orange  is  yellow, 
divided,  and  without  a 
core.     The  pulp  of  an 
apple   is   white,   undi- 
vided, and  contains  a 
core.    It  is  harder  than 
the  pulp  of  an  orange. 

2.  Peel.        Orange 
peel  is  thick,  somewhat 
rough,      and      orange 
color.     Apple  peel   is 
thin,  smooth,  and  va- 
ries in  color. 

III.  Uses,  and  quali- 
ties on  which  uses  de- 
pend. 

1.  Apples  are  made 
into  sauce,  tarts,  cider, 
&c.      Are  best  when 
cooked. 

2.  Oranges      make 
candy,   marmalade, 
wine.      Are   best   un- 
cooked.     Each  eaten 
because  pleasant  to  the 
taste,  and  wholesome. 

IV.  Growth,    culti- 
vation, &c. 

1.  Apples  are  grown 
in  the  Northern  and 


Vegetable,  fcy  referring  to  the  different 
kingdoms.  Juicy,  by  experiment  (cutting 
fruit).  Spherical,  by  comparison  with  a 
coin  or  ring.  Wholesome,  by  reference  to 
a  horse  chestnut ;  distinguished  from  nour- 
ishing, by  comparison  with  an  egg.  Pleas- 
ant to  the  taste,  by  experiment,  or  an  ap- 
peal to  memory.  (W.  B.) 

2.  Children  find  out  the  corresponding 
parts,  and  the  position  of  each,  by  obser- 
vation. 

II.  Differences  in  the  arrangement,  sub- 
stance, color,  and  in  presence  and  absence 
of  core,  brought  out  by  observation. 


III.  Appeal  to  experience  and  reason 
of  children. 


IV. 

1.  Teacher  refers  to  map,  and  points  out 
States  where  apples  grow.     Children  de- 


108 


OBJECTS. 


Middle  States.     They   cide  as- to  the  kind  of  climate  that  is  neces- 
require    a  moderately    sary  for  their  growth, 
warm  climate.   A  plan- 
tation of  apples  is  called 
an  orchard. 

2.  Oranges  grow  in  2.  Proceed  the  same  for  oranges, 
the  Southern  States 
and  Cuba.  They  re- 
quire a  hot  climate.  A 
plantation  of  oranges 
is  called  an  orangery. 

Summary. — "Write  heads  on  the  slate.     Children  give  matter. 

Third  head  left  out,  because  not  essential  to  be  committed  to 
memory. 

Students  construct  sketch  on  "  Kid  Glove  and  Kid  Slipper," 
as  "  Orange  and  Apple." 


3.  Sketch  on  Comparison  of  Cork  and  Sponge. 

Point. — Quality  on  which  uses  depend,  and  dependence  of  one 
quality  on  another. 


I. — 1.  Cork  is  natu- 
ral. 

2.  Cork  is  vegetable. 

3.  Cork  is  foreign. 

4.  Cork  is  light. 

5.  Cork  is  brown. 

6.  Cork  is  compres- 
sible and  elastic. 

7.  Cork  is  porous. 


8.  Cork  is  impervi- 
ous and  buoyant. 


METHOD. 

I. — 1.  Brought  out  by  reference  to  the 
works  of  man. 

2.  Children  asked  where  it  comes  from. 
Told  that  it  is  the  bark  of  a  tree. 

3.  Children  told  where  the  tree  grows. 
Map  referred  to. 

4.  Children   referred   to  water   as  the 
standard  weight.     The  lightness  of  cork 
shown  by  experiment. 

5.  Show   different   specimens,    and   let 
children  name  the  color. 

6.  By  experiment. 

7.  By  direct  observation  with  a  magni- 
fying glass,   and  comparison   with   dense 
substances,  as  minerals. 

8.  By  experiment. 


OBJECTS. 


109 


II.  Qualities  depend- 
ent one  on  another. 

1.  Cork  is  buoyant, 
not  merely  because  it 
is  light,  but  because  it 
is   impervious.      Cork 
is  impervious  because 
its  pores  are  small,  and 
but  little  connected. 

2.  Sponge  is  absorb- 
ent, because  its  pores 
are  large  and  connect- 
ed. 


III.    Sponge    is    a 
"natural     animal     sub- 
stance,   light,    brown, 
compressible,     elastic, 
and  porous. 


IV.  Uses,  and  quali- 
ties on  which  uses  de- 
pend. 

1.  Cork  is  used  for 
life  boats,  cork  legs  and 
arms,  because  buoyant 
and  light ;  for  soles  of 
shoes,   because  imper- 
vious ;  for  stoppers  of 
bottles,  because  imper- 
vious, elastic,  and  com- 
pressible. 

2.  Sponge  is  useful 
for    washing,    because 
absorbent,     compressi- 
ble,      elastic,       light, 
tough,  and  durable. 


II. 

1.  Children  led  to  discover  the  buoy- 
ancy of  cork.     They  decide  whether  light 
or  heavy  things  float  on  water,  and,  by 
experiment,  which  is  the  lighter — cork  or 
sponge.    Yet,  as  they  perceive,  the  sponge 
soon    sinks,    while    the   cork    still   floats. 
Why  this  is  ? 

2.  Cut  the  sponge,  to  show  the  com- 
munication between  the  external  openings 
and  the  central  channels.      Children  say 
what  must  happen  if  we  put  such  a  struc- 
ture under  water,  and  why.     Try  the  ex- 
periment. 

III.  For  animal,  children  asked  where 
we  find  sponge  ?  What  it  is,  and  a  little  of 
the  natural  history  given.  Mention  the 
term  marine.  Children  give  other  exam- 
ples of  marine  substances,  as  coral,  &c. 
Children  required  to  mention  qualities  of 
sponge,  the  same  as  those  possessed  by  cork. 

IV. 


1.  Brought  out  by  referring  to  previous 
knowledge  (teacher  giving  any  needful 
information  as  to  uses).  Infringing  out 
the  qualities  on  which  uses  depend,  the 
reason  is  appealed  to. 


2.  Brought  out  by  getting  children  to 
describe  the  effect  of  the  process  of  wash- 
ing, on  the  sponge.  It  receives  water,  be- 
cause it  is  absorbent ;  it  discharges  the 
water  when  used,  because  it  is  compressi- 
ble ;  it  resumes  its  former  shape,  and  be- 
comes fit  for  use  as  before,  because  it  is 
elastic ;  it  is  easily  lifted  and  moved,  be- 
cause it  is  light ;  it  lasts  for  a  long  time  in 
constant  use,  and  is  not  worn  away,  be- 
cause it  is  tough  and  durable. 


110 


OBJECTS. 


Summary. — Children    arrange   and    classify    the    "  Matter'1 
under  "  Kesemblances  and  Differences  of  Cork  and  Sponge,"  as : 


RESEMBLANCES. 

Both  are  natural, 
foreign,  light,  brown, 
porous,  compressible, 
and  elastic. 


DIFFERENCES. 

Cork  is  a  vegetable  substance.  Sponge 
is  an  animal  substance.  Cork  is  imper- 
vious. Sponge  is  absorbent.  Cork  is 
buoyant,  because  light  and  impervious ; 
impervious  on  account  of  the  smallness 
and  want  of  connection  of  its  pores. 
Sponge,  though  lighter  than  cork,  is  not 
buoyant,  because  absorbent ;  and  absorb- 
ent, because  of  the  size  and  open  structure 
of  its  pores. 

Students  construct  sketch  on  "  Comparison  of  Salt  and  Sugar," 
like  "  Cork  and  Sponge." 


4.   Sketch  on  Water. 
Points. — Qualities  on  which  uses  depend.     Less  obvious  quali- 


ties. 

MATTER. 

1.  Water  is  taste- 
less and  refreshing ; 
therefore  useful  to 
drink. 


2.  Water  is  a  sol- 
vent, without  smell  or 
color ;  therefore  useful 
for  washing,  for  fer- 
tilizing the  ground,  and 
for  dissolving  various 
substances. 


3.  Water  is  reflec- 


1.  Children  say  why  they  like  to  drink 
water  in  summer.  Whether  there  is  any- 
thing they  like  better  to  drink.  Whether 
they  would  like  to  drink  cider  or  tea  only 
whenever  they  were  thirsty,  and  at  every 
meal.  (They  would  get  tired  of  it.)  Why 
they  cannot  get  tired  of  water.  Effect  of 
drinking  water  when  very  thirsty. 

2.  Experiment. — Put  a  little  sugar  into 
water.  Children  say  what  the  water  does. 
Are  told  what  water  is.  Find  other  things 
of  which  water  is  a  solvent.  Refer  to 
water  as  nourishing  plants,  and  explain 
that  it  does  so  by  dissolving  substances  in 
the  ground  which  are  their  food.  Refer 
to  use  of  water  in  washing.  As  beer  is  a 
solvent,  lead  children  to  find  why  it  would 
not  do  to  wash  in  that. 

3.  Experiment. — Water  will  serve  as  a 


OBJECTS. 


Ill 


tive,  which  makes  it  a 
beautiful  object  in  a 
landscape. 


4.  Water  takes  the 
shape  of  the  vessel  that 
holds  it. 


5.  "Water  exists  in 
different  states — some- 
times as  a  liquid,  some- 
times as  a  solid,  and 
sometimes  as  a  vapor. 


mirror.  Children  find  what  does  better 
than  water,  and  why.  Refer  to  the  con- 
dition of  people  before  mirrors  were  in- 
vented. Objects  commonly  mirrored  in 
water.  Effect  of  this  reflection  on  the 
scene. 

4.  Experiment  with — 1,  plate ;  2,  basin ; 
3,  vial.  Children  describe  these  as  to  ex- 
tent— 1,  wide  and  shallow ;  2,  not  so  wide, 
but  deeper ;  3,  narrow  across,  but  deeper. 
Fill  each  with  water,  and  measure  in  dif- 
ferent directions,  showing  how  the  extent 
of  the  water  corresponds  with  that  of  the 
vessel.  Children  called  on  to  say  what 
will  happen  if  the  contents  of  the  vessels 
be  exchanged. 

5.  Experiment. — Eefer  to  the  idea  of 
liquid.  Refer  to  a  little  girl  who  went  for 
water  on  a  very  cold  day.  She  found  only 
ice.  How  this  differed  from  liquid  water. 
She  put  the  solid  ice  into  the  kettle — put 
the  kettle  on  the  fire.  Second  change 
water  underwent  (vapor).  Children  to  say 
where  they  expect  to  find  much  ice,  and 
why  there  is  often  so  little  water  in  very 
hot  countries. 

6.  By  reference  to  the  uses  of  water, 
and  the  sufferings  caused  by  the  scarcity 
of  it,  show^the  goodness  of  God  in  sup- 
plying it  abundantly.  Children  say  where 
it  is  to  be  found.  Refer  to  where  the 
vapor  went,  and  tell  them  the  clouds  are 
made  of  this  vapor.  Thus  some  water  is 
always  floating  in  the  air,  whence  it  falls 
in  rain.  Some  in  hollow  places  in  the 
earth  ;  hence  it  gushes  out  in  springs,  and 
there  is  generally  plenty  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  that  we  may  get  it  easily. 


As  each  point  is  worked  out,  let  children  form  a  sentence, 
which  write  on  the  board  as  found  in  "  Matter." 

For  summary,  read  matter  from  the  board,  and  rewrite  from 
memory. 


6.  Water  is  found 
in  different  places — in 
the  clouds  overhead,  in 
the  caves  of  the  earth, 
underneath  and  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground. 


112 


OBJECTS. 


Students    construct    sketch    on    "Mercury,"    or    "Air,"    as 
"Water." 

5.   Sketch  on  Loaf  Sugar. 

Points. — Qualities  as  discovered  by  the  senses.     Less  obvious 
qualities. 

MATTER. 


1.  Sugar   is   white, 
sp&rkling,  opaque. 


2.   Sugar 
and  hard. 


is 


rough 


3.  Sugar  is  sweet. 

4.  Sugar  is  fusible, 
brittle,  granulous,  and 
crystallized. 


METHOD. 

1.  Present  a  piece  of  loaf  sugar,   and 
ask  the  children  to  give  the  name,   and 
tell  what  they  can   discover  by  looking 
at  it.     Compare  it  with  a  piece  of  crys- 
tal.     Points  of    difference — one    translu- 
cent, the  other  opaque.     Points  of  resem- 
blance— hard,    white,    bright.       Compare 
the    brightness    of    both    objects — one    is 
bright   all    over,   the    other   full  of  little 
bright  points.     A  thing  clear,   bright   all 
over,  is  said  to  be  lucid.     A  thing  full  of 
little  bright  points,  is  said  to  be  sparkling. 
Children  name  other  objects  that  sparkle, 
and  find  by  comparison  that  things  that 
sparkle  have  usually  a  rough  surface. 

2.  Bring  out  rough  and  hard,  by  asking 
children  what  they  can  say  after  feeling 
of  it. 

3.  By  taste. 

4.  Bring  out  fusible,  soluble,  brittle,  and 
granulous,  by  direct  observation  and  ex- 
periment.     Crystallized,   by  aid  of  micro- 
scope,    (a)  Children  compare  the  magni- 
fied grains  with  each  other,  and  find  that 
they  are   all   the   same    shape,     (b)  Chil- 
dren notice  that  they  are  solid,  by  reference 
to  the  broken  grains.      Whether  they  find 
anything  inside  ?     (c)  Produce  some  of  the 
simplest  solids,  and  some  amorphous  stones, 
which  the  grains  must  resemble.     Why  ? 
Because  some  are  broken,  and  others  are 
whole.    Show  one  part  of  a  solid  concealing 
the  other  part.  What  children  expect  to  find 
on  the  other  side — corresponding  faces  arid 
edges.    Will  know  that  crystals    re  alike. 
Give    term    regular.     Tell    children    that 


OBJECTS. 


113 


5.  Sugar  is  vegeta- 
cultivated,     and 
.ufactured. 


substances  formed  in  little  grains,  all  of 
which  are  regular  solids,  are  said  to  be 
crystallized.  Eefer  to  sugar  as  juice  of  a 
plant.  Children  state  the  origin  and  origi- 
nal form  of  sugar  (liquid).  Produce  vari- 
ous specimens  of  crystals,  and  after  draw- 
ing attention  to  them  as  such  (being  regu- 
lar), tell  them  that  every  one  of  these  was 
once  a  liquid,  and  has  now  become  a  regu- 
lar solid.  Examples  found  by  children  of 
a  liquid  that  crystallizes  (snow).  Might 
be  followed  by  lesson  on  the  forms,  into 
which  many  objects  crystallize. 

5.  Bring  out  vegetable,  by  reference  to 
the  sugar  cane,  of  which  show  a  specimen. 
Cultivated,  by  comparison  with  grass,  &c. 
Manufactured,  by  comparison  of  the  cane 
with  its  product  (sugar).  Some  informa- 
tion given  as  to  the  processes  the  article 
undergoes  in  the  course  of  manufacture. 


Points,  as  worked  out,  written  on  the  board. 

Summary. — Erase  "  Matter."  Children  say  which  of  the 
qualities  they  have  considered  have  been  discovered  by  sight ; 
which  by  feeling ;  by  taste  ;  by  experiment ;  and  by  reference  to 
previous  knowledge.  Write  the  qualities,  as  the  children  shall  dic- 
tate, in  separate  columns. 

Qualities  discovered  by  more  than  one  sense,  may  be  written 
in  separate  columns,  thus : — 


Sense  of 
Sight. 

Sense  of 
Feeling. 

White. 

RoughC). 

Sparkling. 

Hard. 

Opaque. 

Rough('). 

Sense  of 
Taste. 

Sweet. 


Experiment. 

Fusible. 

Soluble. 

Brittle. 

Granulous. 

Crystallized. 


Previous 
Knowledge. 

Cultivated. 
Manufactured. 


Students  construct  sketch  on  "Bread,"  as  " Sugar." 


114:  OBJECTS. 

6    Sketch  on  a  Mould  Candle. 

Points. — Material  and  Structure.     Adaptation  of  each  to  uses. 

I.  Shape  and  Substance. — The  candle  is  long — length  com- 
pared with  girth.     Slender — girth  compared  with  length.     Term 
given — Nearly  cylindrical.     Number  and  kind  of  sides  of  a  cylin- 
der observed.     In  what  respects  the  candle  differs.     Description 
given — It  is  made  of  tallow  and  cotton,  the  tallow  outside,  the  cot- 
ton inside,  where  it  forms  a  loop  at  one  end.     Materials  and  their 
position  observed.     Terms  wick  and  loop  given. 

II.  Qualities. 

1.  Tallow  is  an  animal  substance — brought  out  by  reference  to 
whence  we  get  it.     It  is  white — by  sight.     Adhesive — a  little 
dropped  on  some  paper.     Impressible — the  candle  scratched  by  a 
match  or  pin.     Solid  or  liquid,  according  to  the  temperature — candle 
lighted,  and  the  part  nearest  the  flame  compared  with  the  rest. 
"What  makes  the  difference  ? 

2.  Cotton  wick  is  white  and  soft — by  looking   and   feeling. 
Tough — by  reference  to  breaking  a  candle ;    what  part  remains 
unbroken.     Fibrous — compared  with  chalk,  which  is  formed  of 
little  grains.     Is  a  vegetable  substance — children  brought  to  this 
conclusion  by  being  told  that  all  vegetable  substances  are  fibrous. 
"What,  then,  is  cotton  ?     How  they  know  this,  &c.     Told  a  little 
about  the  cotton  tree  ;  that  it  grows  in  warm  climates,  &c.     Pic- 
ture shown.      Is  absorbent — lighted  wick  observed.      Is  inflam- 
mable, though  less  so  than  tallow — saturated  and  unsaturated  wick 
lighted.    Which  takes  fire  the  sooner,  and  why  ?     Burns  to  ashes, 
and  then  ceases  to  absorb.     What  we  do  with  the  ashes,  and  why  ? 

III.  Uses,  and  qualities  on  which  the  use  depends. —  Candles 
are  burned  to  give  light.      This  use  depends  on  the  fact  that  the  wick 
is  inflammable  and   absorbent,   and   the   tallow  inflammable   and 
fusible.     Tallow  and  wick  compared — which  takes  fire  soonest  ? 
In  what  respects  they  are  alike.     What  the  wick  would  do  with- 
out the  tallow — smoulder  away  without  giving  much  light.     The 
tallow  without  the   wick — flow   in  all    directions  while  blazing 
away.     What  the  wick  does  to  the  tallow — absorbs  it.     Then 
"  the  wick  must  be  not  only  inflammable,  but  absorbent."     In 


OBJECTS.  115 

what  state  the  tallow  is  when  absorbed — in  a  liquid  state.     "  Tal- 
low must  be  not  only  inflammable,  but  must  be  fusible." 

Matter  put  on  the  board  point  by  point,  as  worked  out.    Read 
by  the  children.     Erased  by  the  teacher,  who  writes: 

I.  State  the  parts  of  the  candle. 

II.  State  on  what  qualities — 1,  of  the  tallow  ;  2,  of  the  wick — 
tthe  use  of  the  candle  depends. 

Children  reproduce  the  lesson  on  their  slates. 
Students  construct  sketch  on  "  Match,"  as  "Candle." 

7.  Sketch  on  a  Knife  and  Fork. 

Points. — Material  and  Structure. — Adaptation  of  each  to  use. 

1.  Objects  Observed  and  Compared. — 1.  Resemblance. — Traced 
by  the  children.    As  to  use — both  used  in  taking  food.    Substance — 
partly  mineral  and  partly  animal.      Make — both  have  handles, 
shanks,  and  points. 

2.  Difference. — In  use — one  to  cut  up  the  food,  the  other  to 
keep  it  firm  and  convey  it  to  the  mouth.     In  make — the  one  has 
a  blade,  the  other  a  shank  spreading  out  into  three  prongs.    Why 
this  difference  ? 

II.  Adaptation  of  Make  to    Use. — Children  to  determine  this. 
Handles  and  shanks  to  both.     Why  ?     The  blade  of  the  knife — 
why  thin  at  one  edge  ?     Why  blunt  at  back  ? — to  allow  the  pres- 
sure of  the  finger  in  cutting ;  also  to  strengthen  the  blade.     The 
fork — its  shank — why  longer  than*  in  the  knife  ?      Why  partly 
visible,  and  not,  as  in  the  knife,  hidden  by  the  handle  ?     Its  use. 
Prongs — their  number,  and  the  reason  for  this  number.     Why 
narrowing  towards  the  points  ?     Why  edged,  and  not  quite  cylin- 
drical ? — to  give  them  a  firmer  hold  in  the  meat.     Use  of  the 
shoulder. 

III.  Adaptation  of  Material  to  Make. — Children  to  discover 
this  by  comparing  it  with  various  other  substances. 

1 .  The  B  lade  of  the  Knife. — Why  not  of  stone  ? — a  stone 
blade  could  not  give  way  when,  being  used,  it  might  happen  to 
come  in  contact  with  any  other  substance,  as  gristle,  &c.  It  is 


116  OBJECTS. 

not  flexible.  Why  not  of  lead  ? — a  leaden  blade  would  bend, 
lose  its  shape,  and  become  useless.  Not  elastic.  Why  not  of 
tortoise  shell  ? — a  tortoise  shell  blade  as  likely  to  break  as  to 
yield.  Why  not  of  wood  ? — a  blade  made  of  wood,  or  of  any  of 
the  other  substances,  would  not  take  an  edge  sufficiently  fine 
and  sharp.  The  last  two  substances  not  sufficiently  hard  or 
tenacious. 

^Requisites  for  the  blade  of  a  knife  determined  by  the  chil- 
dren— -flexibility,  elasticity,  tenacity,  hardness.  Why  not  of  iron, 
which  possesses  all  these  qualities? — the  blade  must  be  very 
smooth,  and  capable  of  taking  a  high  polish,  to  cut  thin,  smooth 
slices.  Substance  possessing  all  these  requisites — steel. 

2.  The  metallic  part  of  the  fork. — Qualities   required — tena- 
city— hardness — capability  of  taking  polish.     Steel  required  for 
this  also. 

3.  Handles. — Must   be   light.     Why? — the  metal    is  heavy. 
Smooth.     Why  ? — that  the  touch  may  be  pleasant  to  the  hand, 
and  that  they  may  be  easily  cleaned.     On  these  accounts  com- 
monly made  of  bone — the  more  expensive  ones  of  ivory. 

Summary. — The  children  required  to  reproduce — first,  orally 
from  the  board,  and  afterward  in  writing  on  their  own  slates. 

Students  construct  sketch  on  "Pen  and  Pencil,"  as  "Knife 
and  Fork." 

8.  Sketch  on  the  Spider's  Web. 
Point. — Material  and  Structure.     Adaptation  of  each  to  use. 


MATTER. 


1.  The  garden  spi- 
der makes  a  web  in 
which  to  take  its  prey. 


2.  The  spider's  web 
is  made  from  a  thick 
glue  contained  in  its 
body.  The  creature 


1.  Draw  a  diagram  of  the  web  on  the 
board,  getting  the  children  to  notice  the 
kind  of  lines  made — whether  vertical  or 
horizontal.     Finally,   let   them  say  what 
object  the  whole  represents,  and  of  what 
use  it  is. 

2.  Question  as  to  material  of  which  web 
is  made.     What  it  is  like  ?     How  they 
know  it  is  not  cotton,  silk,  or  hair  ?    Hav- 
ing exercised  their  reason  and  curiosity, 


OBJECTS. 


117 


has  five  or  six  holes  in 
its  sides,  out  of  which 
the  glue  oozes.  This 
substance  is  very  tena- 
cious, and  can  be  drawn 
into  the  finest  threads. 


3.  (a)  To  begin  her 
b,  the  spider  presses 


3 

web, 

her   side    against   the 

wall ;  then  a  drop  of 

glue  conies  out,  which 

sticks. 

(b)  She  then  jumps 
to  the  other  side,  carry- 
ing the  thread  with  her. 
She  goes  backward  and 
forward  several  times, 
ever    adding     to    the 
thickness  of  the  thread. 

(c)  She   next   goes 
from  corner  to  corner, 
and  then  across,  until 
the  whole  space  is  filled 
up  with  threads  regu- 
larly arranged. 

(d)  She  fastens  the 
sides  to  the  wall   by 
threads  projecting  from 
the  outer  edge. 

(e)  Lastly,      she 
makes  a  little  cell  in 
the  middle  underneath, 
in  which  she  can  hide 
while     watching     for 
prey. 

4.  The  material  of 
the  web  is  a  tenacious 


tell  them.  Show  some  ravelled  silk,  and 
tell  them  it  would  take  many  of  the  spi- 
der's threads  to  equal  one  of  these — thus 
giving  them  an  idea  of  their  thinness. 
Draw  threads  from  some  heated  sealing- 
wax,  to  develop  the  idea  of  tenacious — 
give  the  term.  Let  them  apply  it  to  spi- 
ders' threads.  Get  other  examples.  If 
not  readily  given,  refer  to  melted  glass, 
metal,  or  even  molasses.  Then,  from  ex- 
periment with  the  sealing  wax,  the  chil- 
dren will  see  that  the  more  the  threads  are 
drawn  out,  the  thinner  they  must  become. 
3.  (a)  Tell  children. 


(6)  Illustrate  this  on  the  board.  Let 
the  children  say  how  the  doubling,  treb- 
ling, &c.,  will  affect  the  thread.  Whether 
there  would  be  one  thick  thread,  or  sev- 
eral thin  ones,  and  why  ? 


(c)  Illustrate  this  by  drawing  Ijnes  in 
order  on  the  board.  Let  children  notice 
how  closely  the  threads  come  together. 


(d)  Draw  from  the  children,  how  this 
can  be  fastened  to  the  wall,   and   what 
quality  enables  the  threads  to  fasten  them- 
selves. 

(e)  Tell  them  of  the  cell ;  of  its  situa- 
tion out  of  light.     Let  them  say  of  what 
use  it  can  be  to  the  spider. 


4.  Facts,  from  memory — results,  by  rea- 
>n  ;  for  instance,  let  the  children  discover 


118  OBJECTS. 


glue.  Its  threads  are 
thin,  drawn  closely  to- 
gether, and  wonderful- 
ly strong,  first  to  catch, 
and  then  to  hold  the 
prey. 


what  would  happen  if  a  fly  came  to  a  web, 
the  threads  of  which  were  wide  apart,  or 
made  of  a  very  fragile  substance.  Eefer 
to  an  insect  in  molasses  or  cream  ;  show 
that  the  more  it  struggles,  the  more  it  is 
stuck  fast. 


In  conclusion,  refer  to  the  discomfort  of  flies  in  summer,  the 
mischief  they  do,  &c.  Let  the  children  say  of  what  use  the  spi- 
der is  to  man.  Refer  to  the  wisdom  of  God  in  creating  the  spider. 

Students  construct  sketch  on  "  Cocoon,"  as  "  Spider's  "Web." 

9.  Sketch  on  the  Honeycomb. 

Point. — Material  and  Structure.  Adaptation  of  the  latter  to 
uses — so  brought  out  as  to  develop  the  idea  of  Instinct. 

I.  Material. — Made  by  bees  of  a  substance  obtained  from 
flowers,  and  called  wax.  Usually  found  in  a  kind  of  box  called 
a  hive.  Refer  to  the  condition  of  bees  in  wild  countries,  where 
no  hives  are  provided  for  them.  "What  they  occupy — cavities  in 
rocks,  holes  in  trees,  &c.  Refer  to  the  reed  baskets  used  in 
Africa. 

II..  Structure. — Why  the  bees  make  the  comb — to  put  their 
honey  in.  How  adapted  to  this  purpose — by  being  full  of  cells. 
Give  the  term  cellular.  Also  to  keep  the  young  bees  in  before 
they  are  able  to  fly  about,  &c.  The  young  of  the  bee  is  round  in 
shape.  Children  say  of  what  shape  they  would  expect  their 
cradles  to,  be.  Whether  the  cells  are  of  this  shape — they  are 
six-sided.  Give  the  term  hexagonal.  Why  hexagonal,  and  not 
round?  To  bring  this  out,  draw  two  diagrams  on  the  board, 
one  representing  round,  and  the  other  hexagonal  cells.  Direct 
attention  to  the  spaces  between  the  round  cells.  Suppose  this 
space  filled  up  with  wax,  as  it  would  be  in  the  honeycomb,  of 
what  use  would  the  wax  be  there  ?  None  ;  it  would  be  a  waste 
of  material.  But  suppose  the  bee  to  take  away  with  its  pincers 
all  the  wax  between  the  cells,  except  a  thin  thread ;  this  would 
save  the  wax,  but  what  the  effect  would  be — this  would  be  too 


OBJECTS.  119 

fragile  ;  the  weight  of  the  young  bee  would  crush  it.  How  won- 
derful to  see  the  little  bee  meet  these  difficulties,  by  making  hex- 
agonal cells,  which  take  the  least  amount  of  wax  consistent  with 
the  proper  strength  of  the  comb,  and  are  just  as  good  to  keep  the 
young  bees  in. 

III.  The  faculty  of  the  constructor. — Refer  to  themselves, 
their  work,  their  lessons  (as  writing).  At  first  they  do  a  thing 
badly,  then  better,  and  at  length  very  well.  But  the  bee  makes 
the  first  honeycomb  as  well  as  the  last.  If  several  men  had  to 
make  each  a  cradle,  and  without  seeing  the  work  of  the  rest,  their 
workmanship  would  be  very  different ;  perhaps,  too,  the  material 
and  the  design.  The  work  of  all  bees  is  just  alike  in  all  respects. 
The  bees  in  the  garden  of  Eden  worked  as  the  bees  in  their  gar- 
dens to-day.  The  faculty  which  enables  the  bee  thus  to  work,  is 
called  instinct.  Children  give  examples  of  instinct  as  shown  by 
other  animals.  Children  say  how  they  recognize  instinct,  (a)  In- 
stinct never  improves ;  its  work  is  as  perfect  first  as  last,  (b)  The 
work  is  the  same  as  done  by  all  other  creatures  of  the  same  kind. 

Instead  of  summary,  draw  from  the  children  a  statement  of  the 
advantage  of  hexagonal  over  round  cells,  and  definition  of  in- 
stinct. 

Students  construct  sketch  on  "  Bird's  Nest,"  as  "  Honey- 
comb." 

10.  Sketch  on  the  Palm  Tree. 

Point. — To  exercise  the  children  on  information  given. 

I.  Fruit. — Show  this  to  the  children,  and  let  them  say  what 
kind  of  substance  it  is.     Get  or  give  the  name  of  the  fruit.     Let 
them  describe  it  as  to  shape,  color,  parts,  flavor.     Let  them  taste 
it.     Write  on  the  board  the  following : — The  date  is  a  fruit  of  an 
oblong  shape  ;  it  has  a  tough,  smooth  skin,  a  pulpy  part,  and  a 
very^hard  stone  in  the  centre. 

II.  Tree. — Tel*  the  children  that  the  dates  have  been  gathered 
from  a  tree  which  grows  in  a  country  far  away.     Describe  the 
country  as  having  large  sandy  plains,  arid  and  barren.     Refer  to 
the  heat  of  the  climate,  and  the  intense  thirst  caused  by  this. 


120  OBJECTS. 

The  condition  of  travellers  after  marching  many  miles.  They  see 
a  grove  of  tall  trees.  Name  of  these.  How  travellers  feel  when 
they  are  covered  from  the  hot,  burning  sun,  and  can  eat  the  fruit. 
Draw  picture  of  the  tree,  and  direct  attention  of  the  children  to 
'  the  height  the  trunk  of  the  tree  grows  without  leaves.  Tell  them 
it  grows  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  feet.  To  give  the  idea  of  the 
height,  compare  it  with  the  length  of  the  school  room,  fence,  or 
yard.  (W.  B.)  :  "  The  date  palm  grows  in  the  desert.  It  has  a 
trunk  which  is  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  feet  high." 

III.  Uses. — Children  to  name  those  parts  of  the  tree  likely  to 
be  useful  to  man,  and  the  uses  made  of  them.  Correct  errors,  and 
supply  information.  (W.  B.)  :  u  The  fruit  is  used  for  food.  The 
stones  are  bruised  for  the  seeds,  which  are  given  to  the  camels. 
The  leaves  are  made  into  fans,  baskets,  and  hats.  The  wood  is 
used  for  building  houses." 

Summary. — Recapitulation  of  lesson  from  memory. 

Students  construct  a  lesson  on  the  "  Cedar,"  as  the  "  Palm." 

LIST    OF  IDEAS   TO    BE  DEVELOPED  AND  TEEMS  TO  BE  GIVEN,   ETC., 
IN    THIS   STEP. 

1.  Terms  expressing  less  obvious  qualities ;  as,  buoyant,  ductile, 
malleable,  tenacious,  sonorous,  stimulating,  fertilizing,  conservative 
or  preservative,  aromatic,  astringent,  medicinal,  effervescent,  emol- 
lient, oily,  mixable,  irregular  shaped,  slimy,  &c. 

2.  Terms  expressing  ideas  referring  to  structure ;  as,  woven, 
p  cellular,  tubular,  netted,  serrated,  indented,  crystallized,  concave, 
.  convex,  spiral,  &c. 

3.  Terms  expressing  ideas  referring  to  the  nature  and  con- 
dition of  substances ;   as,   metallic,  gaseous,  fluid,  watery,  sweet, 
saline,  vinous,  non-conductor,  fermented,  manufactured,  exported, 
imported,  &c. 

FOURTH    STEP       v 

Includes  Classification  of  Objects,  and  so  leads  up  to  science. 
Also,  Classification  of  Qualities.     Lessons  on  the  senses  them- 
selves should  be  given  at  this  step. 


OBJECTS.  121 

Where  the  course  of  instruction  does  not  contain  a  course  of 
lessons  on  Actions,  which  properly  lead  to  manufactures,  arts,  &c., 
some  consideration  of  these  subjects  may  properly  be  referred  to 
Objects,  Fourth  Step. 


1.  Sketch  to  Develop  the  Idea  of  Distinction  between  the  Essential 

and  Accidental  Qualities  of  an  Object. 

I. — Teacher  presents  a  number  of  various  pieces  of  sealing  wax, 
telling  the  children  to  find,  state,  and  classify  the  differences. 
They  are  red,  blue,  green,  &c.  j  therefore  they  differ  in  color. 

One  is  thick,  slender,  long ;  therefore  they  differ  in  size. 

One  is  flattened,  another  cylindrical ;  therefore  they  differ  in 
form. 

By  experiment,  one  is  hard,  softened,  fused,  whole,  broken, 
stamped  ;  therefore  they  differ  in  condition. 

II. — Children  required  to  state  the  resemblances — vegetable, 
fusible,  impressible,  and  adhesive.  Children  led  to  see  that  we 
can  have  no  sealing  wax  which  has  not  the  four  qualities ;  while 
we  often  have  pieces  not  red,  not  cylindrical,  or  not  stamped. 
Terms  and  definitions  given.  "  The  qualities  which  a  thing  must 
have  to  be  itself,  are  called  essential  qualities.  Qualities  which  it 
may  have,  but  can  be  itself  without  having,  are  called  accidental." 

2.  Sketch  to  Develop  the  Idea  of  the  Distinction  between  Generic 

and  Specific  Qualities. 

I. — The  teacher,  standing  before  a  large  table  covered  with  a 
variety  of  objects,  including  pictures  of  birds,  which  can  readily 
be  classified,  desires  first  one  and  then  another  of  the  children  to 
group  all  that  should  go  together.  Children  group — 

Swallow,     Robin,  Kingfisher,          .  .     as  Birds. 

Silver,          Gold,  Iron,      ...         as  Metals. 

Wheat,        Maize,  Oats,          .         .  .as  Grain. 

Water,         Milk,  Ink,        ...         as  Liquids. 

Tulip,         Lily,  Rose,         .         .  .as  Flowers. 
6 


122  OBJECTS. 

II. — 1.  Children  to  say  how  they  know  a  flower  when  they 
see  it.  Definition  worked  out  from  their  answers,  and  written  on 
the  board,  thus  :  "A  flower  is  the  most  beautiful  -part  of  a  plant. 
It  usually  has  colored  leaflets,  and  contains  the  seed." 

2.  Children  say  how  they  know  a  rose  when  they  see  it. 
Definition  worked  out  as  before.  "  The  rose  is  a  flower  distin- 
guished by  a  number  of  stamens,  which  rise  from  the  top  of  the 
seed  vessel.  Often  it  is  pink  in  color,  round  in  shape  ;  has  many 
leaves,  and  a  fragrant  scent." 

III.  Differences  in  terms  distinguished. — Ask  children  whether 
we  can  call  all  flowers  roses  ?     No ;  for  some  are  violets,  some 
are  pinks,  &c.     Whether  there  are  more  flowers  or  roses  in  the 
world,  and  why?     Children  thus  led  to  see  that  flower  is  the 
name  of  a  large  class,  while  rose  is  the  name  of  a  smaller  class 
contained  in  the  large  class.     Compare  this  with  a  school,  and  its 
classes. 

IV.  Names  given  and  applied. — Tell  the  children  that  words 
which  express  the  large  class  are  said  to  be  generic,  and  words 
which  express  the  small  class  said  to  be  specific. 

1.  Let  them  apply  these  terms  to  flower  and  rose,  respectively. 

2.  Give  jewel  as  the  name  of  a  large  class,  and  let  the  chil- 
dren give  the  name  of  some  smaller  class  belonging  to  it,  as  dia- 
mond, &c. 

3.  Then  give  trout  as  the  name  of  a  small  class. ,  Children  to 
find  the  name  of  the  large  class  to  which  it  belongs. 

Children  give  as  many  examples  of  generic  and  specific  quali- 
ties as  needful.  Put  down  all  the  examples  in  two  columns  under 
the  proper  heads,  as  the  children  shall  direct. 

Examples. 

GENERIC.  SPECIFIC. 

Picture.  Painting. 

Pillar.  Column. 

Edifice.  School  house. 

Temple.  Church. 

Furniture.  Chair. 

Ornament.  Bracelet. 

Servant.  Slave. 

Feature.  Nose. 


OBJECTS. 


123 


3.  Sketch  of  a  Lesson  on  Shells  and  their  Inmates. 


I.  Use. — Shells  are 
found  in  the  sea ;  also 
in  rivers,  and  some  on 
land.  They  serve  both 
for  the  homes  and 
armor  of  certain  ani- 
mals. These  have  no 
bones,  and  cold,  white, 
or  colorless  blood. 
These,  being  soft,  are 
called  mollusks. 


II.  Of  what  com- 
posed. —  Shells  are 
made  by  the  animals 
which  inhabit  them. 
They  are  composed  of 
three  substances :  1, 
lime,  a  sort  of  chalk, 
which  the  creature  ob- 
tains from  the  water ; 
2,  a  glue  given  out  by 
it  from  its  own  body — 
this  varies  in  color,  and 
gives  color  to  the 
shells ;  3,  part  of  the 
skin  of  the  animal, 


I. — Bring  before  the  children  some 
shells.  Let  them  say  what  they  are. 
"Where  found  ?  Supply  information  as  to 
shells  found  injand,  and  by  reference  to 
them  as  marine  objects,  lead  children  to 
conclude  that  wherever  they  are  found  the 
sea  must  once  have  been.  Show  an 
oyster  shell  containing  its  inmate.  Chil- 
dren state  the  use  of  the  shell.  The  last 
use  brought  out  by  reference  to  its  de- 
fenceless condition  without  it.  Let  a  child 
press  the  oyster  ;  then  press  his  own  chin 
or  forehead.  The  difference,  and  its  cause. 
What  they  can  say  of  the  oyster.  (S.  R.)  : 
"  The  oyster  has  no  bones."  Another 
difference  discovered  by  touch.  Its  cause. 
(S.  R.)  :  "  The  blood  of  the  oyster  is  cold." 
Refer  to  the  color  of  our  blood.  Cut  the 
oyster,  to  show  the  watery  liquid.  (S.  R.)  : 
"  The  blood  of  the  oyster  is  colorless." 
Children  told  that  all  animals  living  in 
shells  resemble  the  oyster  in  all  these 
points,  and  on  account  of  their  soft,  bone- 
less structure,  are  called  mollusks.  Chil- 
dren dictate  the  matter  of  this  head. 
(W.  B.) 

II. — Refer  to  storms  at  sea,  the  waves 
dashing  the  shells  against  rocks,  &c.,  and 
lead  children  to  see  that  shells  require  to  be 
made  very  strong.  Show  a  specimen  of 
the  lime  as  one  constituent  part.  Where 
the  animals  can  find  such  a  substance. 
Refer  to  the  limestone  rocks  of  coasts,  and 
coating  inside  teakettle.  Whether  this 
substance  alone  would  make  a  good  shell 
(too  brittle).  What  more  required — some 
substance  not  brittle,  the  reverse  of  brittle, 
to  mix  with  it.  Show  glue.  Let  chil- 
dren recognize  it  as  an  animal  substance, 
and  show  the  quality  on  which  its  use  as 
a  constituent  part  of  the  shell  depends. 


124: 


OBJECTS. 


which  lines  these.  The 
animals  have  the  power 
of  mending  their  shells 
when  broken.  The 
new  pieces  are  bright- 
er in  color  than  the 
old. 


III.  Different  kinds 
of  Shells.— Shells  are 
very  numerous.  There 
are  many  thousand 
different  kinds.  These 
are  divided  into  three 


viz. : — 

1,  those  of  one  piece ; 

2,  those  of  two  pieces ; 

3,  those  of  three  pieces. 


Tell  children  that  the  glue  used  to  make 
the  shell  comes  from  the  animal  itself.  Note 
the  beauty  and  color  of  the  various  shells. 
Let  the  children  name  the  colors,  and  try 
to  account  for  their  appearance.  Give  in- 
formation. Let  them  give  examples  of 
similar  variations  in  other  classes  of  Na- 
ture's works  (birds,  stones,  &c.).  How 
the  animal  obtains  the  shell — it  is  part  of 
itself;  grows  with  it.  Refer  to  broken 
shell.  These  objects,  which  are  very  liable 
to  be  broken,  can  be  repaired.  Appear- 
ance of  the  new  piece  on  the  shell.  Refer 
to  a  new  piece  of  material  put  upon  an  old 
garment,  &c. 

III. — Bring  the  children  specimens  of 
each  kind.  Let  them  discover  how  they 
differ  in  structure,  and  classify  accord- 
ingly. Matter  of  the  lesson  dictated  by 
the  children,  and  placed  on  the  board. 


4.  Sketch  on  Plants  of  the  Cruciform  Tribe. 


MATTER. 

I.  Structure. — In 
plants  of  this  tribe  the 
corolla   is   formed   by 
four  petals  placed  cross- 
wise ;  hence  the  name. 
There  are  six  stamens, 
four  long  and  two  short. 
The  seed  vessel  is  a 
pod,  differing  from  that 
of  the  pea  in  having 
two  partitions. 

II.  Qualities. — 
These  plants  bear  flow- 
ers of  different  colors. 
Brown,    as    the    wall 


I. — Bring  flowers  of  this  kind  before 
the  children.  Let  them  observe  the  dis- 
tinct parts  of  these.  Direct  special  atten- 
tion to  position  of  the  petals.  Refer  to 
the  derivation  of  the  name,  the  number 
and  length  of  the  stamens,  the  compart- 
ments of  the  pistil.  Let  children  name 
all  cruciform  plants  they  know.  (W.  B.) 


II. — Children,  with  reference  to  the  list 
on  the  board,  name  the  different  colors  of 
the  flowers.  Lead  them  to  see  that  they 
have  mentioned  no  blue  flower  j  there  is 


OBJECTS. 


125 


not  one  in  the  tribe.  Let  them  describe 
the  scent  of  any  of  these  flowers  when 
fresh.  Refer  them  to  the  condition  of 
water  in  which  wall  flowers  have  been 
kept,  or  in  which  cabbage  lias  been  boiled. 
Refer  to  the  mustard  plant,  the  chief  qual- 
ity of  mustard — pungency,  leaving  them 
to  infer  that  all  plants  of  the  same  kind 
partake  of  the  same  quality. 


flower  ;  pink  or  puce, 
as  the  stock ;  white  or 
yellow,  as  mustard, 
turnip,  radish.  No 
flower  of  the  tribe  is 
blue,  nor  can  any 
amount  of  cultivation 
produce  a  blue  flower. 
The  flowers  have  a 
sweet  smell  except 
when  decayed,  and 
then  the  smell  is  par- 
ticularly disagreeable, 
on  account  of  the  es- 
cape of  a  gas  on  which 
the  characteristic  quali- 
ties of  these  plants  de- 
pend. They  are  all 
highly  pungent,  all 
wholesome,  and  even 
medicinal. 

III.  Uses.— We 
cultivate  some  of  these 
plants  for  their  sweet 
smell,  as  the  stock  and 
wall  flower  ;  some  for 
food,  as  the  cabbage 
and  watercress,  for 
their  leaves  ;  the  tur- 
nip and  radish,  for  their 
roots  ;  some  for  what 
we  call  a  relish,  as 
mustard  and  horse  rad- 
ish. All  this  food  puri- 
fies the  blood.  Sailors, 
who  take  long  voyages, 
and  consequently  suffer 
from  scurvy,  almost 
always  find  a  plant  of 
this  tribe  (Cocheleria) 
growing  on  the  shores 
of  uncultivated  lands. 
They  eat  it,  and  this 
cures  them. 

Summary. — Children  reproduce  the  lesson  from  the  heads. 


TIL— Refer  to  the  list  on  the  board. 
Children  mention  the  use  of  each  separate- 
ly, then  classify  the  uses.  Bring  out  the 
distinctive  use  of  mustard  and  horse  radish, 
by  asking  if  these  would  serve  as  the  only 
vegetable  at  a  meal.  Explain  the  effect 
of  eating  only  salted  meat,  and  refer  to  the 
goodness  of  God  in  providing  a  cure. 


126 


OBJECTS. 


5.  Sketch  on  Flavors. 


I.  Flavors. 

1.  Some  things  are 
sweet  to  the  taste. 

2.  Some  things  are 
luscious  to  the  taste. 


3.  Some  things  are 
bitter  to  the  taste. 

4.  Some  things  are 
acid  to  the  taste. 

5.  Some  things  are 
acrid  or  alkaline  to  the 
taste. 


6.  Some  things  are 
saline  to  the  taste. 


7.  Some  things  are 
brackish  to  the  taste. 


8.  Some  things  are 
astringent  to  the  taste. 


METHOD. 

I. — 1.  Developed  by  experiment  with 
sugar.  Children  give  the  term.  No  defi- 
nition given. 

2.  Developed  by  experiment  with  mo- 
lasses.   Children  describe  the  flavor.    Term 
and  general  definition  given:   "Anything 
which  is  extremely  sweet,  is  said  to  be 
luscious" 

3.  Developed  by  experiment  with  qui- 
nine.    Children  give  term.     No  definition 
given. 

4.  Developed  by  experiment  with  cream 
of  tartar.     Children  give  the  term.     No 
general  definition  given. 

5.  Developed  by  experiment  with  soda. 
Term  and  general  definition  given  :   "  Any- 
thing that  has  a  burning,  bitter  taste,  is 
said  to  be  acrid"     Children  told  that  soda 
is  one  of  the  substances  called  alkalies, 
whence  we  sometimes  speak  of  its  taste  as 
alkaline. 

6.  Developed  by  experiment  with  the 
blue  and  white  papers  called  Seidlitz  pow- 
ders, after  the  flavor  of  each  powder  has 
been  separately  ascertained.     Term    and 
general  definition  given:   "Anything  hav- 
ing the  taste  of  salt  is  said  to  be  saline" 
A  saline  substance  can   be  obtained   by 
combining  an  acid  and  an  alkaline  sub- 
stance. 

7.  Developed  by  putting  a  little  salt  in 
water.    Children  describe  the  taste.    Term 
%nd  general  definition  given  :    "  Anything 
that  has  a  slightly  salty  taste,  is  said  to  be 
brackish."     Refer  to  springs  in  the  desert. 

8.  Developed  by  experiment  with  alum. 
Children  describe  the  effect  on  the  mouth. 
Term  and  general  definition  given :   "Any- 
thing which   draws    up   or  contracts  the 
mouth  is  said  to  be  astringent." 


OBJECTS. 


127 


9.  Some  things  are 
pungent  to  the  taste. 


10.  Some  things  are 
aromatic  to  the  taste. 


11.  Some  things  are 
savory  to  the  taste. 


TT. — The  sense  by 
which  we  discover  each 
of  these  qualities,  we 
call  taste ;  the  quality 
itself  we  call  flavor. 


9.  Developed  by  experiment  with  mus- 
tard.    Children  referred  to  scents  of  the 
same  character.     Give  the  term.     General 
definition  given  :   "  Anything  which  has  a 
hot,  biting  taste,  is  said  to  be  pungent." 

10.  Developed  by  experiment  with  cin- 
namon.    Children  being  referred  to  scents 
of  the  same  character,  give  the  term.    Gen- 
eral definition  given:    "Anything  which 
has  a  hot,  strong,  pleasant  taste,  is  said  to 
be  aromatic." 

11.  Developed  by  reference  to  gravy, 
&c.     Children  describe  the  flavor.     Term 
and  general  definition  given  :   "Anything 
with  a  rich,  saltish,  pleasant  taste,  is  said 
to  be  savory." 

II. — Developed  by  writing  two  sentences 
on  the  board,  in  each  of  which  the  word 
taste  is  used  in  a  different  sense.  Children 
say  how  used.  Are  told  that  there  is  an- 
other word  which  expresses  the  quality, 
and  what  advantage  there  would  be  in 
using  it.  Teacher  writes  the  general  term 
flavor  above  the  list  of  specific  flavors, 
which  have  been  written  on  the  board  as 


given. 

III. — Terms  and  definitions  given, 
amples  found  by  children. 


Ex- 


Ill. — Things  having 
a  flavor  are  said  to  be 
sapid.  Things  having 
little  or  no  flavor  are 
said  to  be  insipid. 
Things  having  a  highly 
agreeable  flavor,  are 
said  to  be  delicious. 
Things  having  a  dis- 
agreeable flavor  are 
said  to  be  nauseous. 

Summary. — 1:  Children  read  the  list  of  flavors,  and  in  turn 
give  examples. 

2.  Teacher  gives  the  definitions  in  any  order,  children  giving 
the  term  which  expresses  each  definition. 

3.  Teacher  erases  the  list  of  flavors,  children  supplying  it. 


128  OBJECTS. 

4.  Children  add  each  of  the  definitions  given  to  the  corre- 
sponding term. 

The  summary  may  be  omitted  until  the  next  day,  and  used  as 
an  exercise  on  the  previous  lesson. 

6.  Sketch  of  a  Lesson  on  Qualities,  discovered  by  the  Sense  q, 
feeling. 

1.  Introductory. — Teacher  refers  the  children  to  a  former  les- 
son, in  which  they  have  brought  qualities  of  an  object  to  the  test 
of  all  their  senses.     Tells  them  that  the  subject  of  this  lesson  will 
be  all  the  qualities  they  can  discover  by  means  of  one  sense — 
feeling.     Let   them   name  all   the    qualities  they  can  think  of. 
(W.  B.)      Teacher  then  engages  them  to  try  experiments,   in 
order  to  find  out  what  more  can  be  known. 

II. — 1.  Teacher  blindfolds  the  first  child.  Presents  him  with 
a  stone,  cotton,  water,  tube,  &c.  He  says  :  "  By  feeling,  we  can 
discover  whether  objects  are  hard,  soft,  liquid,  or  hollow." 

2.  Teacher  blindfolds  second  child,  and  presents  him  with  a 
nutmeg  grater,  an  oyster  shell,  a  piece  of  carved  wood,  &c.,  who 
says :    "  By  feeling,  we  can  discover  whether  things  are  rough, 
smooth,  level,  or  uneven." 

3.  Teacher  proceeds  as  before,  by  examining  the  contents  of 
a  box  of  solids,  and  comparing  these  with  lumps  of  clialk.     The 
third  child  says  :    "  By  feeling,  we  can  discover  whether  objects 
are  edged,  cubical,  cylindrical,  or  (in  fact)  any  regular  form,  or  of 
an  irregular  form." 

4.  Teacher  presents  measures  of  different  lengths.     The  fourth 
child  says :   "  By  feeling,  we  can  discover  whether  things  are  long 
or  short,  thick  or  thin,  deep  or  shallow." 

5.  Teacher  places  several  similar  objects  at  various  distances. 
Fifth  child  says  :   "  By  feeling,  we  can  discover  whether  things  are 
near  or  far,  and  how  far."     [Exercise  on  the  absolute  distance, 
whether  an  inch  or  a  foot.] 

6.  Teacher  places  the  same  objects  in  different  positions,  and 
sixth  child  says:   " I>y  feeling,  we  can  discover  whether  things  are 
up  or  down,  without,  within,  or  between." 

7.  Teacher  presents  a  piece  of  sealing  wax  that  has  just  been 


OBJECTS.  129 

used.  Seventh  child  says:  "  By  feeling,  we  can  discover  whether 
things  are  burning,  hot,  warm,  lukewarm,  cool,  cold,  or  freezing." 

8.  Teacher  presents  a  sponge,  before  dipping  it  in  water,  and 
after  wringing  it ;  an  eighth  child  says  :  "  By  feeling,  we  can  dis- 
cover whether  things  are  dry,  wet,  or  moist." 

III. — Children  compare  these  ideas  witli  those  discovered  by 
themselves  at  the  beginning  of  the  lesson.  Teacher  may  do  well 
to  refer  to  the  use  of  object  lessons  in  giving  accurate  and  sys- 
tematic knowledge,  instead  of  the  imperfect  knowledge  that  is 
gathered  from  a  merely  superficial  observation. 

IV. — Children  led  to  find  general  terms  inclusive  of  each  set 
of  the  particular  terms  before  used.  They  dictate  what  is  to  be 
put  on  the  board,  thus  : 

By  the  sense  of  feeling,  we  discover, 

1.  The  Character  of  the  Substance. 

2.  The  Character  of  the  Surface. 

3.  The  Form. 

4.  The  Size. 

5.  The  Distance. 

6.  The  Position. 

7.  The  Condition,  as  to  Temperature^ 

8.  The  Condition,  as  to  Moisture. 

7.  Sketch  of  Lesson  on  an  Egg. 

I.  Shape. — An  egg  is  oval,  smaller  at  one  end  than  the  other. 
The  word  oval  is  derived  from  ovum,  the  Latin  for  egg. 

II.  Paris —  Order  of  Position  and  Formation. — An  egg  consists 
of  several  distinct  parts :    1,  the  shell ;   2,  the  skin  between  the 
shell  and  albumen,  or  the  membrane ;  3,  the  albumen ;  4,  the  skin 
between  the  albumen  and  the  yelk,  or  the  envelope  ;  5,  the  yelk ; 
6,  the  embryo.     The  order  of  the  original  formation  of  each  part 
is  exactly  the  reverse  of  the  position.     To  these  parts,  though  not 
as  a  distinct  part,  may  be  added  the  follicle. 

III.  Use  of  each  Part. — 1.    The  shell  protects  the   interior 
parts.     2.  The  membrane  is  of  use  to  strengthen  the  shell  and  to 
prevent  injury  to  the  young  bird  ;  probably  also  to  keep  the  exter- 
nal air  from  penetrating,  and  to  keep  the  albumen  from  mixing 


130  OBJECTS. 

with  the  shell  ere  it  becomes  hardened  by  exposure.  3.  The  albu- 
men serves  as  nourishment  for  the  young  bird.  4.  The  envelope 
prevents  the  yelk  from  mixing  with  the  albumen.  5.  The  yelk 
is  the  substance  from  which  the  bird  is  formed,  as  the  albumen  is 
the  nourishment  during  formation.  6.  The  embryo  is  the  yelk 
in  process  of  formation.  7.  The  follicle  contains  the  air  for  the 
use  of  the  young  bird. 

IV.  Qualities  on  which  Uses  depend. — 1.  Shell. — Advantages 
of  the  shape — being  oval,  it  is  not  so  likely  to  be  broken  as  if  it 
had  corners.  The  shape  also  renders  it  more  comfortable  for  the 
mother  bird  during  the  process  of  hatching,  and  more  convenient 
to  be  turned  over,  that  each  part  may  receive  equal  warmth. 
This  shape,  too,  suits  that  of  the  bird  before  it  is  fully  developed, 
and  admits  of  the  little  creature's  free  egress. 

2.  Obvious  Qualities  of  the  Shell. — Hard,  smooth,  brittle,  thin, 
porous.     Hard,  that  it  may  keep  its  shape  under  pressure ;  smooth, 
pleasanter  to  the  touch — less  liable  to  be  broken  when  coming  in 
contact  with  any  roughness  of  the  ground ;  brittle,  that  egress  may 
be  afforded  to  the  chick ;    thin,  for  the  same  reason,  and  to  pre- 
vent waste  of  material ;  porous,  to  admit  air. 

3.  Qualities  of  the  Membrane. — Tough,  smooth.      Tough,  to 
strengthen  the  shell ;   smooth,  on  account  of  the  chick. 

4.  Qualities  of  the  Albumen. — Thick,   glutinous,   insipid ;    is 
soluble  in  cold  water,  curdles  in  hot  water.     Effect  of  heat  in 
hatching  the  bird,  &c. 

5.  Qualities  of  the  Envelope. — Strong,  thin,  impervious. 

6.  Qualities  of  the  Yelk. — Sapid,  colored. 

8.  Sketch  of  Lesson  on  Writing  Paper. 

I. — The  children  are  desired  to  discover  the  qualities  on  which 
the  use  depends.  It  is  smooth,  in  order  that  the  pen  may  pass 
over  it ;  glossy,  to  prevent  the  ink  from  penetrating ;  flexible, 
therefore  easily  folded  into  the  form  of  a  letter ;  thin,  therefore 
light;  portable,  therefore  cheaper. 

II.  Substitutes  for  Paper. — Tell  the  children  that  paper  was 
unknown  in  ancient  times.  Let  them  say  how  people  could  man- 
age when  they  wanted  to  send  news — they  could  send  messen- 


OBJECTS.  131 

• 

gers.  Why  this  was  not  so  good  as  writing  notes — some  trouble, 
and  less  certainty.  But  we  have  another  use  for  paper.  When 
war  breaks  out,  or  some  great  deed  is  done,  we  like  to  write  it  in 
a  book,  that  it  may  be  remembered.  How  people  that  had  no 
paper  could  keep  their  records.  Refer  the  children  to  what  they 
have  read  in  the  Bible.  The  commandments  were  written  on 
tables  of  stone.  Joshua  wrote  a  copy  of  the  law  on  tables  of 
stone.  The  high  priest  had  an  inscription  on  a  gold  mitre. 
Hezekiah  desired  that  his  writing  tablets  should  be  brought. 
Explain  to  the  chidlren  that  the  tablets  used  in  those  days  were 
generally  of  wax. 

The  rolls  mentioned  in  the  Bible  were  of  parchment.  Why 
called  rolls?  Children  dictate  the  list  of  substances  formerly  used 
in  lieu  of  paper — stone,  metal,  wax,  parchment.  Consider  the 
comparative  convenience  of  using  each  of  these.  Tell  them  that 
the  Egyptians  used  something  else.  A  plant  used  to  grow  on  the 
banks  of  the  great  river  which  waters  their  country.  The  people 
took  the  bark  of  this,  and  pressed  the  edges  together  till  they  ad- 
hered. Whether  the  same  thing  could  be  done  with  narrow  strips 
of  paper  ?  Children  mention  things  that  will  adhere,  as  postage 
stamps,  &c.  What  quality  this  bark  must  have  possessed — it 
contained  a  sweet  gum.  Was  called  papyrus.  Children  say  why 
the  pieces  of  bark  were  allowed  to  adhere  at  the  edges  only. 
When  a  large  sheet  was  formed,  it  was  rubbed  with  a  glass  or 
metal  ball.  The  use  of  this  operation. 

III.  Modern  Paper. — Tell  them  that  the  first  paper,  properly 
so  called,  was  made  in  Spain,  of  cotton  wool,  and  afterward  of 
woollen  rags.  The  first  mixture  of  linen  rags  was  accidental ;  but 
when  it  was  discovered  that  paper  was  improved  thereby,  more 
linen  rags  were  added  next  time,  and  so  on  until  only  linen  was 
used,  and  the  best  paper  produced  as  a  result.  In  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.,  a  ship  laden  with  this  paper  was  wrecked  off  the  coast 
of  England.  The  booty  was  considered  of  so  much  importance, 
that  several  records  are  still  in  existence  in  which  the  fact  is  men- 
tioned. In  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  the  first  paper  mills 
were  established  in  England.  For  a  long  time,  only  a  little  paper 
was  used.  Why  so  much  more  required  now  ?  It  was  feared 
that  there  would  not  Se  enough  nice  white  rags  to  make  good 


132  OBJECTS. 

paper.  An  ingenious  German — Schaffer — thought  he  would  as- 
certain of  what  other  substance  paper  could  be  made.  Some  he 
made  of  straw,  some  of  vine  tendrils,  some  of  fibrous  roots.  In 
what  these  substances  were  alike.  But  soon  after  this  another 
ingenious  man  found  out,  that  by  using  a  substance  called  chlo- 
rine, he  could  take  the  dye  out  of  colored  rags,  and -make  them 
perfectly  white. 

IV.  Ancient  Paper. — Refer  again  to  the  substitutes  for  paper 
formerly  resorted  to.  Tell  the  children  there  was  one  nation 
which  in  ancient  times  used  paper.  Let  them  enumerate  the 
ancient  nations  with  which  they  have  any  acquaintance,  as,  Jews, 
Egyptians,  Romans.  Whether  it  could  be  any  of  those,  and  why 
not  ?  Refer  to  the  map,  and _  point  out  China.  Tell  them  that 
hundreds  of  years  ago  the  Chinese  were  in  the  practice  of 
making  paper,  by  grinding  the  bark  of  a  tree,  and  placing  it  in 
water.  "When  steeped  to  a  pulp,  it  was  poured  into  shallow 
moulds,  placed  one  on  the  top  of  another,  with  a  bulrush  mat  be- 
tween each  mould,  and  a  reed  under  each  mat.  These  mats  were 
raised  every  day,  that  the  paper  might  dry  gradually.  Children 
to  say  the  use  of  the  mats,  and  the  use  of  the  reeds.  Produce  a 
specimen  of  rice  paper,  and  explain  how  this  is  obtained.  It  is 
the  pith  of  a  water  weed.  In  the  finest  specimens  this  is  found  as 
large  as  the  thumb  of  a  man.  This  is  pared  in  a  circular  direction 
with  a  knife. 

9.  Sketch  on  Comparison  of  Wine  and  Water. 

I.    Qualities  compared. 
Wine  is  Water  is 

1.  Artificial.  1.  Natural. 

2.  Colored.  2.  Colorless. 

3.  Only  semi-transparent.  3.  Transparent. 

4.  Odorous.  4.  Inodorous. 

5.  Sapid.  5.  Tasteless. 

6.  Stimulating.    ) 

7.  Exhilarating.  >•  6.  Only  refreshing. 

8.  Nourishing.     ) 

9.  Astringent.  7.  Relaxing. 
10.  Heating.  8.  Cooling. 


OBJECTS.  133 

II.  How  these  Qualities  in  each  Liquid  render  it  useful  to  man. — 
"Water  must  of  necessity  be  natural,  as  such  a  quantity  is  needed 
by  man  for  his  use.     It  must  be  colorless,  transparent,  inodorous, 
and  tasteless,  otherwise  it  would  not  be  pure,  and  consequently  of 
little  service,  as  it  would  destroy  or  detract  from  the  taste  of  sub- 
stances with  which  it  is  mixed.     Its  cooling  and  refreshing  quali- 
ties give  it  great  advantages  over  any  other  liquid.     The  sapid, 
stimulating,  exhilarating,  and  astringent  qualities  of  wine,  render 
it  particularly  useful  to  man. 

III.  How  these  Liquids  are  obtained. — Spontaneous  evaporation 
is  the  origin  of  any  quantity  of  water.     This  is  continually  taking 
place  from  off  the  surface  of  seas,  lakes,  &c. :  the  vapors  ascend,  and 
form  clouds  ;  these,  on  attaining  a  higher  region,  become  condensed ; 
by  the  power  of  attraction  they  descend  to  the  mountains,  the 
particles  become  separated,  and  percolate  into  the  earth ;  then  the 
water,  where  it  finds  the  least  pressure,  forces  a  passage ;  a  fissure 
is  consequently  made  in  the  mountains,  and  a  spring  is  thus  origi- 
nated, which  flows  onward  till  obstructed  ;  at  such  a  place  the 
water  accumulates,  and  ultimately  gives  rise  to  a  river,  which  in 
its  course  is  joined  by  others,  and  these  continue  their  onward  mo- 
tion till  they  are  lost  again  in  the  mighty  ocean.     Then  the  same 
thing  again  occurs ;   and  therefore  we  may  perceive,  as  it  wTere,  a 
complete  revolution  in  the  formation  of  water  as  used  by  man. 

To  obtain  wine,  vines  must  first  be  planted.  "When  the  fruit 
is  sufficiently  ripe,  it  is  gathered,  placed  in  large  vessels,  and 
pressed.  Perforations  in  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  allow  the  juice 
to  flow  out  into  another,  from  whence  it  is  taken  and  casked. 
Then  there  is  a  fourfold  repetition  of  this  process  :  1.  The  liquid 
becomes  sweet;  this  is  the  saccharine  fermentation  (example, 
wort).  2.  This  process  evolves  another  substance,  and  we  have 
the  alcoholic  fermentation  ;  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  alco- 
hol contained  in  the  liquid,  the  next  process  is  retarded.  3.  It 
becomes  sour ;  this  is  the  acetous  fermentation.  When  a  fourth 
change  takes  place,  it  is  the  symptom  of  decay  and  corruption, 
and  is  called  the  putrefactive  fermentation.  Wine  is  fit  for  use 
after  the  second  fermentation.  The  wines  of  Hungary  have  been 
known  to  form  so  thick  a  crust  around  the  inside  of  the  cask,  that 


134 


OBJECTS. 


the  wood  could  be  removed  without  causing  the  wine  to  flow 
out. 

IV.    Qualities  referred  to  in  Scripture. 


WATER. 

1.  Unstable.     Gen.  xlix.  4. 

2.  A  Solvent.     Job  xiv.  19. 

3.  Penetrating.     Ps.  cxix.  18. 

4.  Reflective.     Prov.  xxvii.  19. 

5.  Refreshing.     Ps.  xxiii.  2. 

6.  Purifying.     Ezek.  xxxvi.  25. 


Water  is  typical  of  regenera- 
tion and  sanctification — cleansing 
and  purifying  in  its  nature.     It  i 
is  particularly  typical  of  the  work 


WINE,  IN    MODERATION. 

1.  Cheering.     Judges  ix.  3. 

2.  Gladdening.     Ps.  civ.  15. 

3.  Strengthening.     Cant.  ii.  5. 

4.  Medicinal.     1  Tim.  v.  23. 

IN    EXCESS. 

1.  Intoxicating.     Eph.  v.  18. 

2.  Infuriating.     Prov.  xx.  1. 

Wine  is  rather  typical — 1,  of 
consolation ;  2,  of  the  reviving 
and  invigorating  graces  of  the 
Spirit. 


of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  is  used 
in  baptism. 

10.  Sketches  on  the  Bible. 

Having  drawn  from  the  class,  by  a  few  direct  and  simple  ques- 
tions, that  the  Bible  was  not  always  a  printed  book — was  not  first 
written  in  English — was  not  bestowed  on  mankind  at  once,  com- 
-plete  from  Genesis  to  Revelation,  but  in  detached  parts ;  and  hav- 
ing told  them  to  consider  the  successive  portions  in  which  it  was 
given,  the  languages  in  which  it  was  first  written,  and  the  form  in 
which  it  then  appeared,  the  children  ought  to  be  in  possession  of 
most  of  the  facts  referred  to  ;  therefore,  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  lessons,  the  business  of  the  teacher  would  be  to  lead  them 
to  collect  and  arrange  what  they  already  know. 

I. — Scripture — in  what  portions  given,  and  at  what  period. 

1.  Possessors  of  Scripture — the  Hebrew  nation.  Not  when 
we  first  recognize  it  in  Egypt,  but  previous  to  the  settlement  in 
Canaan.  Date  of  this  event.  At  that  time  the  Israelites  had  the 
writings  of  Moses,  probably  including  one  or  two  of  the  Psalms, 


OBJECTS.  135 

and  the  Book  of  Job.  Thence  to  the  first  captivity,  they  received 
successively  the  books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  Kings,  Chron- 
icles, the  writings  of  David,  those  of  his  son,  a  portion  of  the 
greater,  and  most  of  the  lesser  prophets.  Date  of  the  captivity. 
During  that  period,  the  remainder  of  the  greater  prophets,  and  two 
of  the  lesser  prophets.  After  the  return,  the  narratives  of  Ezra, 
Nehemiah,  and  Esther,  with  the  three  last  prophetical  books.  4 
Date  of  the  return. 

2.  Books  of  the  New  Testament  period.  Also  considered 
with  respect  to  writers,  titles,  and  order.  Date  of  conclusion  of 
Scripture.  Text  learned  :  Hebrews  i.  1 — "  God,  who  at  sundry 
times  and  in  divers  manners  spake  in  times  past  unto  the  fathers 
by  the  prophets,  hath  in  these  last  days  spoken  unto  us  by  his 
Son." 

II.  Language. — That  in  which  Scripture  was  first  written. — 
Translations. — 1.  Every  revelation  prior  to  the  date  of  the  first 
captivity  made  in  Hebrew.  This  accounted  for.  Books  of  Danie] 
and  Ezra  written  partly  in  Hebrew  and  partly  in  Chaldee.  Lead 
the  class  to  infer  the  probable  reason  of  this,  from  consideration  as 
to  the  subject  of  the  portions  written  in  Chaldee ;  principally  such 
as  include  original  letters,  decrees,  &c.,  of  the  Babylonish  and 
Persian  Governments.  Scriptures  posterior  to  the  date  of  the 
captivity  written  in  Chaldee,  and  all  the  earlier  books  translated 
into  the  same  tongue.  No  sooner  did  the  ancient  Hebrew  become 
a  dead  language,  than  the  Scriptures  were  put  into  the  vernacular 
tongue  by  men,  such  as  Ezra,  acting  under  the  immediate  inspira- 
tion of  God.  Conclusion  drawn  from  this,  and  text  learned, 
showing  the  importance  of  understanding  the  Word  of  God : 
1  Cor.  xiv.  19 — "I  had  rather  speak  five  words  with  my  under- 
standing, that  by  my  voice  I  might  teach  others  also,  than  ten 
thousand  words  in  an  unknown  tongue." 

2.  The  coming  of  the  time  in  which  the  Gentiles  were  to  be 
led  to  a  knowledge  of  the  truth,  marked  by  the  dispersion  of  the 
Scriptures  among  them.  Providence  of  God  shown  in  this.  Its 
design  and  effect.  Give  general  account  of  various  translations, 
and  particular  one  on  the  Septuagint.  Refer  to,  and  prove  the 
importance  of,  the  last  translation.  Refer  to  prevalence  of  the 


136  OBJECTS. 

Greek  tongue  in  every  part  of  the  civilized  world,  as  connected 
providentially  with  the  publication  of  the  Gospel  in  that  lan- 
guage. 

To  connect  this  period  with  what  follows,  touch  very  briefly 
on  the  general  professions  of  Christianity.  Division  of  the  Ro- 
man Empire,  and  subsequent  spread  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
Catholic 'Churches.  Progress  of  the  latter.  Extent  of  her  power. 
Change  with  respect  to  the  language  of  the  Bible.  Scripture 
written  in  Latin  throughout  all  the  countries  of  the  "Western 
Empire. 

III.  Forms  under  which  the  Scriptures  have  leen  presented  at 
different  periods. — 1.  Derivation  of  the  terms  Bible  and  Scripture. 
Sacred  words  of  the  Jews'  writings.  Not  books.  Kind  of  ma- 
terials chiefly  used,  either  parchment  or  vellum.  Scroll — when 
not  in  use,  rolled  up  on  a  slender  cylinder,  like  a  school  map ; 
hence  origin  of  the  term  volume.  Refer  to  the  Scribes.  Their 
office.  Importance  and  accuracy  of  their  labors. 

-»2.  Describe  sacred  records  of  Christians  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
Illuminated  MSS.  "What  they  were.  Why  so  called.  Some- 
times rolls  ;  oftener  books.  Beauty  and  •  value  of  these  copies. 
The  copyists — what  class  of  men  they  were.  Their  mode  of 
life,  position,  and  character,  compared  with  that  of  the  Jewish 
Scribes. 

3.  Sacred  records  in  the  modern  form.  Class  observe  their 
own  Bibles,  and  state  how  they  differ  externally  from  those  before 
described.  Why  composed  of  many  sheets  bound  together,  not 
of  one  rolled  up?  Why  made  of  paper  rather  than  parchment? 
Why  no  longer  MS.  ?  Give  brief  account  of  the  invention  of 
printing,  and  its  immediate  consequence — the  great  multiplication 
of  copies.  Effect  of  the  distribution  of  these,  all  over  the  world. 
Specimens  of  Scriptural  translations  in  one  hundred  and  forty- 
eight  languages,  were  to  be  seen  at  the  Great  Exhibition.  Com- 
pare God's  present  method  of  making  known  Himself  and  His 
will,  to  that  He  adopted  in  the  apostolic  age.  Then,  supernatural 
gift  of  tongues,  enabling  the  apostles  so  to  preach  that  all  could 
understand.  Why  necessary  then  ?  Now,  the  same  object  effected 
without  a  miracle,  by  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  different 


OBJECTS.  137 

languages,  so  that  the  nations  may  still  say,  "  We  do  hear  them 
speak  in  our  tongues  the  wonderful  works  of  God."  Acts  ii.  11. 

IV.  Unchangeableness  of  the  Inspired  Word — Its  Influence. — 
Bible  to  be  regarded  as  a  perfect  whole.  The  New  Testament 
not  an  abrogation,  but  a  development  of  the  principles  contained 
in  the  Old.  Text:  Matthew  v.  17,  18.  This  might  be  proved  by 
reference  to  the  nature  of  God,  but  is  evidently  seen  by  the  inva- 
riable influence  of  the  Scriptures  on  the  condition  of  man  in  all 
ages  and  countries.  Compare  the  mental  and  moral  condition  of 
the  Jews  prior  to  their  first  captivity,  with  that  of  the  nations 
surrounding  them.  Refer  to  countries  in  which  the  Bible  is 
unknown  at  this  day ;  without  exception,  utterly  barbarous 
and  degraded.  Refer  to  countries  in  which  its  doctrines  are  re- 
jected, and  yet,  because  the  people  have  learned  something  of  the 
historical  events  recorded  in  it,  because  its  precepts  (though  their 
origin  is  not  recognized)  are  interwoven  with  social  laws,  they 
take  a  far  higher  rank.  Instance,  Mohammedans.  Refer  to  coun- 
tries in  which  the  Scriptures  are  held  to  be  true,  and  the  people 
do  not  read  them,  because  the  ecclesiastical  power  has  put  a  seal 
on  the  book ;  these  are  better  off  than  those  before  named,  for 
they  hear  of  the  name,  and  know  somewhat  of  the  character  of 
Jesus,  and  through  the  thick  mists  of  tradition  the  light  of  the 
"Word  will  sometimes  shine. 

Conclusion  drawn — that  the  Bible  is  a  great  engine  of  civiliza- 
tion, as  well  as  the  source  of  spiritual  knowledge.  Effect  of  its 
free  circulation  throughout  our  own  land.  Refer  to  the  renovation 
now  commenced  in  heathen  lands,  from  the  spread  of  the  Scrip- 
tures and  Scriptural  teaching.  Duty  incumbent  on  us  to  place  the 
Bible  in  the  households  of  our  own  and  other  countries.  AVe 
may  anticipate  the  promised  blessing,  that  they  who  water  others 
shall  themselves  be  watered. 


NUMBER. 


INTRODUCTORY   REMARKS. 

LESSONS  ON  NUMBER  introduce  the  pupil  to  subjects  which 
afford  a  higher  exercise  of  mental  power  than  any  of  those  which 
have  hitherto  engaged  attention. 

In  the  study  of  the  properties  of  number,  Pestalozzi  did  not 
aim  at  the  mere  acquisition  of  the  science,  and  of  mechanical  dex- 
terity in  calculation ;  he  considered  the  subject  to  be  a  valuable 
means  of  awakening  intelligence,  of  forming  the  judgment,  and 
of  developing  the  reasoning  faculty.  His  method  of- presenting 
the  first  principles  of  the  science  also  differs  greatly  from  that  ordi- 
narily pursued ;  he  trained  the  mind  to  grasp  the  full  perception 
of  the  value  of  numbers,  by  observation  upon  them  as  illustrated 
in  surrounding  familiar  objects ;  and  when  by  this  process  the 
abstract  idea  was  acquired,  he  then,  but  not  till  then,  communi- 
cated the  symbol  by  which  it  is  conventionally  represented.  It 
was  found  that  pupils  trained  on  these  principles  were  themselves 
enabled  to  deduce  the  practical  rules  of  arithmetical  calculation 
from  the  very  examples  on  which  their  minds  had  been  previously 
exercised. 

This  may  be  a  slow  process ;  but  it  has  been  well  observed, 
that  "  when  the  true  end  of  intellectual  education  shall  be  admit- 
ted to  be,  first,  the  attainment  of  mental  power,  and  then  the  ap- 
plication of  it  to  practical  and  scientific  purposes,  that  plan  of 
early  instruction  which  dwells  long  on  first  principles,  and  does 
not  haste  to  make  learned,  will  be  acknowledged  as  the  most  eco- 
nomical, because  the  most  effectual." 


NUMBER. FIRST    STEP.  139 

To  some  persons,  the  detail,  the  analysis,  the  repetition  recom- 
mended in  the  following  lessons,  may  seem  wearisome  ;  and  it  is 
true,  a  careless  or  unobservant  teacher  may  make  a  weariness  of 
such  instruction,  and,  indeed,  of  any  other  plan  of  education. 
But  if  those  who  have  long  understood  the  meaning  of  one,  two, 
and  three,  were  able  to  remember  the  mental  process  by  which 
they  themselves  acquired  their  understanding  of  these  numbers, 
they  would  find  it  was  by  some  process  not  very  dissimilar  from 
that  here  recommended.  It  may  be  they  were  never  taught  on 
such  a  plan — truth  was  never  thus  clearly  presented  to  the  mind 
in  its  own  natural  simplicity,  rising  step  by  step  into  greater  com- 
plexity ;  it  may  be,  that  instead  of  learning  such  truth  easily  and 
surely,  as  those  will  do  who  are  led  through  these  lessons,  they 
had  to  gather  it  here  and  there,  under  disadvantages  of  every 
kind,  so  that  even  still,  perhaps,  the  beautiful  properties  of  num- 
bers, constantly  as  experience  presents  them,  are  but  seen  through 
a  mist ;  but  it  is  indisputable,  that  any  amount  of  clear  perception 
such  persons  may  have  attained  to,  they  have  attained  it  by  the 
fact  of  the  mind,  itself  an  observant  faculty,  having  done  for  itself 
that  which  the  teacher  omitted  to  do  for  it,  and  having  done  it, 
also,  by  some  such  process  as  this,  with  the  visible  world  for  its 
book,  and  with  God's  gifts  of  observation  and  reflection  for  its 
ever  willing  guides.  Remembering  these  things,  the  judicious 
teacher  will  guard  against  dwelling  too  long  on  these  analytical 
lessons,  using  them  just  so  long  as  there  may  be  work  to  be  done 
by  them,  while  avoiding  also  the  opposite  extreme  of  rapid  but 
unsound  progression. 


FIRST    STEP. 

The  Numbers  One  to  Ten. 

Object. — I.  To  lead  the  children  to  the  perception  of  num- 
ber, by  presenting  it  as  it  is  exemplified  in  surrounding  objects ; 
and  to  teach  the  word  by  which  each  number  of  which  an  idea 
has  been  gained,  may  be  expressed.  II.  To  teach  the  power  and 


140  NUMBER. — FIRST   STEP. 

name  of  each  number,  when  used  as  an  ordinal.  III.  To  exer- 
cise the  mind  on  the  numbers  of  which  the  knowledge  has  been 
attained,  by  exhibiting  their  gradual  increase  by  ones,  and  by 
comparing  their  general  magnitudes. 

Plan. — I.  Successively  develop  the  distinct  perception  of  the 
value  of  numbers,  beginning  with  one,  and  taking  each  number 
separately  in  its  order  as  far  as  ten,  by  the  exhibition  of  the  cor- 
responding number  of  objects.  Any  convenient  appliances,*  such 
as  books,  balls,  pebbles,  slate-pencils,  or  marbles,  may  serve  as 
illustrations.  It  is  well  that  these  should  be  diversified,  that  the 
child  may  the  more  clearly  perceive  that  number  is  a  property  of 
all  separate  objects — of  objects  of  all  qualities,  shapes,  sizes,  and 
colors  alike. 

As  clear  perception  is  thus  successively  gained  of  each  of  the 
several  numbers,  the  teacher  should  tell  the  name  of  the  number. 
The  class  must  then  be  practised  in  associating  the  number  with 
its  name.  In  carrying  out  this — 

1.  The  teacher  gives  the  name,  the  children  bring  forward  the 
corresponding  number  of  objects. 

2.  The  teacher  shows  the  children  a  definite  number  of  ob- 
jects, requiring  them  to  apply  the  name  of  the  number  to  them. 

3.  Lastly,  the  children  enumerate  or  count  from  one  to  the 
number  last  attained,  ascending ;   and  inversely  from  it  to  one, 
descending,  again  and  again,  till  perfect  in  the  exercise. 

II.  The  plan  of  teaching  the  powers  and  names  of  the  num- 
bers when  used  as  expressing  order  of  time  or  of  position,  is  given 
in  II.,  p.  147,  of  this  Step. 

I. — Examples  of  Lessons  on  this  Plan. 

To  develop  the  perception  of  the  number  expressed  by  the 
word  ONE,  and  to  communicate  the  name  of  the  number. 

*  Were  the  common  ball-frame  alone  depended  on  for  illustration,  the  chil- 
dren might  be  led  to  associate  their  ideas  of  number  with  one  species  of  exclu- 
sive objects,  and  their  attainment  of  the  abstract  idea  of  number,  as  a  universal 
property  of  all  objects,  might  be  retarded.  The  true  province  of  the  ball-frame 
is  rather  to  assist  in  working  out  some  of  the  simple  processes  of  calculation, 
when  a  notion  of  number  in  the  abstract  has  been  gained. 


NUMBER. — FIRST   STEP.  141 

This  first  lesson  is  most  important,  as  it  involves  that  which  is 
the  foundation  of  all  number — the  grand  idea  of  One,  or  UNITY. 
The  teacher  must  not  think  the  idea  so  simple  as  to  need  no  illus- 
tration. 

The  child  should  be  led  to  appreciate  the  notion  of  this  num- 
ber by  the  means  already  recommended.  One  object  may  be 
taken  from  many  of  its  kind,  and  held  before  the  class,  or  it  may 
be  placed  in  some  unusual  place,  the  teacher  telling  the  children, 
even  though  they  may  already  know  the  fact,  that  such  a  number 
of  anything  whatsoever  is  said  to  be  one  of  it.  The  word  should 
be  applied  to  diverse  objects,  the  children  being  allowed  to  de- 
scribe them.  How  many  do  I  hold  ?  One.  One  of  what  ?  One 
marble.  And  this  ?  One  pencil.  And  this  ?  One  book.  A 
child  may  be  told  to  bring  one  slate,  or  one  ball,  or  to  give  one 
shout,  one  clap,  &c. ;  and  the  attention  of  each  child  may  be 
guided  to  observation  on  itself  as  one  separate  individual,  or  to 
those  objects  in  nature  which  exist  in  oneness,  as  one  sun,  one 


A  Lesson  to  Develop  the  Perception  of  the  Number  expressed  ly  the 
Word  "  Three"  and  to  Communicate  the  Name  of  the  Number. 

The  following  sketch  of  a  lesson  will  show  the  plan  to  be  pur- 
sued with  all  the  numbers  as  far  as  ten. 

Before  commencing  a  lesson  on  a  -  number  which  is  new  to  the 
children,  the  teacher  should  ascertain  that  they  have  clear  ideas  of 
those  on  which  they  have  already  received  instruction.  In  this 
instance  it  is  supposed  that  the  number  two  has  been  the  subject 
of  a  lesson,  and  is  thoroughly  understood,  and  that  the  teacher 
tests  this  by  directing  one  of  the  children  to  bring  two  pencils,  or 
two  books,  &c.,  while  the  others  look  on  observantly,  and  approve 
or  otherwise,  as  the  case  may  demand.  If  the  requirement  be 
rightly  met,  the  class  may  simultaneously  describe  the  objects  as 
they  are  presented,  saying,  "  Two  pencils,"  "  Two  slates,"  "  Two 
books,"  &c.  Here  also  the  objects  should  be  diverse. 

"With  this  attainment  made,  the  class  may  be  led  on  to  the 
observation  of  the  number  THREE. 


142  NUMBER. FIKST   STEP. 

1.  The  teacher  should  now  add  one  pencil  to  the  two  pencils, 
one  slate  to  the  two  slates,  or  one  book  to  the  two  books,  and,  as 
this  is  done,  require  the  children  to  say,  in  each  case,  "  Three  pen- 
cils," "  Three  slates,"  "  Three  books,"  &c.     As  an  exercise,  groups 
of  three  of  different  objects  may  be  placed  before  the  class,  and 
one  of  the  children  desired  to  bring  a  similar  number  of  the  same 
object,  or  of  some  other.     When  observation  has  been  well  exer- 
cised by  varied  examples  of  this  kind,  the  children  may  again  be 
told  that  such  a  number  of  any  object  whatever  is  called  three  of 
it,  and  that  the  name  of  that  number  is  THREE. 

2.  The  teacher  should  then  try  to  discover  how  far  the  chil- 
dren are  able  to  connect  the  word  three  with  the  corresponding 
number,  by  calling  upon  several  of  them  in  rotation  to  bring  three 
pencils,  or  three  books,  or  three  pins — to  bring  three  of  their  com- 
panions to  the  teacher,  to  hold  up  three  fingers,  or  to  clap  their 
hands  three  times,  &c. 

3.  The  object  of  the  next  exercise  is  to  ascertain  whether  the 
children  can  promptly  apply  the  proper  name  to  the  number,  when 
presented  to  them  in  different  objects.     The  teacher  may  hold  up 
three  fingers,  and  ask  how  many  are  held  up,  and  then  take  up 
three  pencils,  and  again  ask  how  many  there  are,  or  make  three 
strokes  upon  the  slate,  and  ask  how  many  such  a  number  of  any- 
thing is  said  to  be. 

It  may  confirm  ideas  already  gained  as  to  the  succession  of 
numbers,  if  the  children  are  required  to  tell  in  regular  succession 
those  they  have  acquired,  while  the  succession  is  enacted,  as  it 
were,  by  the  teacher.  Several  sets  of  objects  should  be  at  hand, 
from  each  of  which  the  teacher  takes  first  one,  then  a  second,  then 
a  third  ;  the  children  saying,  as  this  is  done,  "  One  pencil,"  "Two 
pencils,"  "Three  pencils;"  "One  pin,"  "Two  pins,"  "Three 
pins,"  &c. 

This  should  be  followed  by  an  exercise  in  ascending  and  de- 
scending enumeration,  thus  : — 

"  Now,  all  together  say  with  me,  One,  two,  three ;  and  again, 
Three,  two,  one.  And  now  say  the  same  without  me,  for  I  shall 
be  silent." 

In  these  exercises,  which  will  need  frequent  repetition,  great 


NUMBER. FIRST   STEP.  14:3 

care  must  be  taken  not  to  perplex  the  children ;  the  perception  of 
number  should  be  permitted  to  grow  upon  them  almost  without 
their  being  conscious  of  the  attainment.  It  should  be  attained  by 
simple  observation,  rather  than  by  a  process  of  reasoning,  although 
it  is  true  that  at  a  further  stage  of  the  child's  education  it  will  be 
found  that  all  the  higher  calculations  of  arithmetical  reasoning  are, 
in  fact,  based  upon  the  knowledge  for  which  it  is  the  aim  of  these 
initiatory  lessons  to  prepare. 

A  right  method  of  carrying  out  this  early  instruction  in  num- 
ber is  so  important,  that  it  is  thought  advisable  to  introduce  in  this 
place  the  following  notes  of  a  lesson  actually  given  by  an  experi- 
enced teacher  to  a  class  of  very  young  children,  on  the  develop- 
ment of  the  number  four.  The  lesson  was  given  in  the  presence 
of  strangers,  to  whom  the  teacher  gave  the  following  introductory 
explanation  of  the  plan  to  be  pursued : — 

1.  I  shall  exercise  the  children  in  the  number  three,  to  ascer- 
tain whether  they  have  a  correct  idea  of  it.     For  example,  I  will 
call  a  child  to  bring  me  three  pointers  from  among  many ;  then 
three  bottles,  &c.    To  give  the  idea  of  four,  I  will  add  one  pointer 
to  the  three  pointers,  one  bottle  to  the  three  bottles,  &c. 

2.  To  ascertain  whether  they  connect  the  right  idea  with  the 
name,  I  will  ask  them  to  bring  me  four  pointers,  four  bottles,  &c. 

3.  To  see  if  they  can  apply  the  names  themselves,  I  will  hold 
up  four  bottles,  four  pointers,  &c.,  and  require  them  to  tell  me 
how  many  there  are. 

Lastly,  I  will  make  them  go  over  together  in  succession,  the 
numbers  they  have  learnt,  that  they  may  obtain  a  clear  perception 
of  numeration  ;  as,  "One  bottle,  two  bottles,"  &c. ;  and  after  this 
make  them  say,  "  One,  two,  three,  four,"  several  times. 

THE   LESSON. 

Teacher.  I  should  like  a  little  child  to  bring  me  three  bottles. 
Let  Charles  bring  them. 

The  child  named  brought  two. 
T.  Is  he  right  ?     Several.  No. 


144  NUMBER. FIRST   STEP. 

T.  Who  can  do  it  ?     Several.  I  can. 

A  little  boy  rose  at  the  bidding  of  the  teacher,  and  brought 
another  bottle  to  her,  making  up  the  number  three. 
\.        T.  Now  who  can  bring  me  three  shells  ?  (pointing  to  some 
placed  at  a  little  distance.)     Several.  I  can. 

T.  Let  Emma  bring  them. 

The  little  girl  referred  to  brought  the  proper  number. 

T.  Now  who  can  bring  me  three  pointers  ?  A  little  girl.  I 
can. 

The  child  rose,  and  brought  the  number  of  pointers  required. 

T.  Has  she  brought  the  right  number  ?     All.  Yes. 

T.  Now  some  child  bring  me  three  stones. 

A  little  girl  brought  three  stones. 

The  teacher,  finding  that  the  children  had  a  correct  idea  of 
three,  placed  before  them  the  same  objects  in  groups  of  four,  and 
called  upon  them  to  repeat  after  her,  "  Four  pointers." 

All.  Four  pointers. 

The  words  were  repeated  three  or  four  times. 

T.  Now  say,  "  Four  stones."     All.  Four  stones. 

The  same  repetition  took  place  as  in  the  case  of  the  bottles 
and  shells. 

The  teacher's  next  point  was  to  ascertain  whether,  when  she 
used  the  name  FOUR,  the  children  connected  the  right  idea  with 
the  name. 

T.  Who  can  bring  me  four  pointers  ?     A  little  girl.  I  can. 

The  child  rose,  and  brought  them  to  the  teacher. 

T.  How  many  pointers  are  there  here  ?     All.  Four. 

T.  Then  did  Lizzy  bring  the  right  number  ?  Three  or  four 
voices.  Yes. 

T.  Now  I  should  like  to  have  four  bottles. 

A  little  boy  rose,  and  brought  three  to  the  teacher. 

T.  Is  he  right  ?     Several  voices.  No. 

T.  Who  can  make  the  number  to  be  four  ?  A  little  boy.  I 
can. 

He  then  rose,  and  brought  one  bottle  more. 

T.  Now,  how  many  bottles  are  there  ?      Several  voices.  Four. 

T.  Who  can  bring  me  four  shells  ?      A  little  boy.  I  can. 


NUMBER. FIKST   STEP.  14:5 

He  brought  them  to  the  teacher. 

T.  Is  he  right  ?     Many  voices.  Yes. 

The  same  thing  was  repeated  in  the  case  of  four  stones : 
"  One  stone,  two  stones,  three  stones,  four  stones ;"  "  One  bottle, 
two  bottles,  three  bottles,  four  bottles,"  &c. 

The  teacher's  third  point  was  to  find  if  the  children  could 
themselves  correctly  apply  the  name.  To  do  this,  he  called  upon 
them  to  pick  up  four  shells,  four  stones,  &c.,  which  they  did  cor- 
rectly. They  then  practised  numeration  up  to  the  point  they  had 
reached,  to  obtain  an  accurate  perception  of  the  increase  of  num- 
bers, saying  after  the  teacher :  "  One  stone,  two  stones,  three 
stones,  four  stones ;"  "  One  bottle,  two  bottles,  three  bottles,  four 
bottles;"  "One,  two,  three,  four." 

T.  Now,  Thomas  (addressing  one  of  the  children),  can  you 
bring  me  four  children  ?  four  who  are  sitting  up  nicely. 

The  little  boy  spoken  to,  rose,  selected  three,  and  led  them  to 
the  teacher. 

T.  Well,  Thomas,  have  you  brought  four  ?     Thomas.  Yes. 

T.  (to  all).  Thomas  says  he  has  brought  four  children;  are 
there  four  here  ?  Nearly  all.  No. 

T.  Let  us  count  them :  one  child,  two  children,  three  chil- 
dren. Let  me  have  four,  Thomas. 

He  brought  another  boy,  who  walked  before  the  rest  to  take 
his  place  by  their  side. 

T.  (to  all ).  Should  he  have  gone  in  front  of  the  other  chil- 
dren ?  Two  or  three  voices.  No. 

T.  Certainly  not ;  he  should  have  come  round  behind  them. 

The  child  was  then  led  round,  and  placed  by  the  side  of  the 
three  children. 

T.  Now  say,  "  One  child,  two  children,  three  children,  four 
children."  This  was  done. 

T.  Now  let  three  children  go  to  their  seats.     Now  one  child. 

The  children  then  went  to  their  seats. 

T.  "Who  can  show  me  four  fingers  ? 

A  little  boy  held  up  all  the  fingers  and  the  thumb  of  botfy 
hands. 

T.  (to  all).  Are  there  only  four  there?     Several  voices.  No. 
7 


146  NUMBER. FIRST   STEP. 

T.  See  what  a  number  of  fingers!  How  many  did  I  ask 
for  ?  Several  voices.  Four. 

The  teacher  then  counted  four  on  her  own  fingers. 
T.  Now,  Emily,  show  me  four. 

The  little  girl  addressed  held  up  that  number  of  fingers. 
T.  How  many  does  she  hold  up  ?     Four. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  pursue  these  detailed  lessons  further.  In 
working  out  the  idea  of  the  higher  numbers,  it  is  necessary  sim- 
ply to  adhere  to  the  plan  here  recommended,  adding  one  addi- 
tional marble,  pebble,  or  book,  to  the  group  last  considered,  recog- 
nized, and  named,  the  teacher  then  calling  on  the  class  to  form 
successive  groups  of  objects,  to  the  numbers  of  which  the  names 
four,  five,  six,  seven,  eight,  nine,  and  ten  are  applicable ;  and  then 
requiring  the  children  themselves  to  give  the  proper  name,  as 
groups  of  objects  containing  such  numbers  are  successively  pre- 
sented to  them,  concluding  the  lesson  by  ascending  and  descend- 
ing enumeration. 

It  must  be  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  teacher  where  to  put  a 
limit  to  lessons  such  as  these.  "  The  degree  of  power  in  children, 
and  the  time  of  development,  are  so  various,  that  nothing  but 
careful  observation  can  make  the  teacher  aware  what  time  or 
labor  each  step  will  require,  before  it  is  thoroughly  understood  by 
the  pupil."  One  child  will  be  embarrassed  when  required  to  tell 
the  number  of  ten  or  twenty  objects  which  lie  before  him,  while 
another  will  determine  it  at  a  glance.  In  one  of  these  cases  the 
power  of  perception  needs  to  be  developed  by  a  patiently  con- 
ducted gradual  process ;  in  the  other  it  will  steadily  acquire  in- 
creased scope  as  larger  numbers  are  presented  to  the  child's  obser- 
vation. As  a  general  rule,  the  number  ten  should  be  the  limit  of 
these  initiatory  lessons  on  number  for  some  considerable  time. 

II. — The  Order  of  Numbers. 

The  object  of  this  lesson  is  to  bring  out  the  relation  in  which 
numbers  stand  to  each  other  when  used  as  ordinals,  and  when  the 
perception  has  been  awakened,  to  communicate  the  name  applied 


NUMBEE. FIRST    STEP.  147 

to  each  number  when  so  used.  It  is  manifest  that,  though  closely 
allied  to  the  abstract  value  of  a  number,  its  power  as  an  ordinal  is 
a  relative  quality.  The  number  three  is  always  three,  under  all 
possible  circumstances ;  but  an  object  is  third,  only  when  some 
other  is  second;  and  that  object  again  is  second,  because  some 
other  separate  object  is  first  in  order.  The  idea  of  three  is  quite 
unchangeable,  but  the  notion  of  third  is  mutable,  as  regards  the 
object  which  for  the  time  is  qualified  by  the  word ;  for  the  object 
which  is  third  may  be  made  the  second,  or  the  first ;  and  the 
object  which  is  first,  may  be  made  second,  third,  fiftieth,  &c.,  infi- 
nitely. These  facts  deserve  a  distinct  lesson  for  their  elucidation, 
lest  the  mind  should  indulge  an  ill-defined  perception  of  a  well- 
defined  truth.  When,  also,  each  new  property  of  numbers  is  thus 
made  the  subject  of  concentrated  attention,  the  mind  gradually 
gains  power  to  think  with  vigor,  to  rely  on  its  own  attainments, 
and  to  apply  the  knowledge  gained  with  accuracy  and  precision. 
If,  however,  the  teacher  should  not  consider  the  children  suffi- 
ciently advanced  for  these  lessons,  the  Exercises,  No.  III.,  page 
149,  may  precede  them ;  and  even  addition  may  be  commenced 
upon  before  they  are  given. 

A  Lesson  to  Develop  the  Idea  of  the  Order  of  Succession  in  Num- 
bers, as  First,  Second,  Third,  &c.,  to  Tenth. 

In  giving  this  lesson,  as  is  suggested  in  "  First  Ideas  on  Num- 
ber," a  small  ladder  containing  but  ten  "  rounds  "  may  be  used  for 
illustration.  This,  being  a  new  object,  will  arrest  attention.  It  is 
also  an  extremely  appropriate  object  for  such  a  purpose. 

The  children  should  first  count  the  rounds  or  steps ;  they 
should  then  be  led  to  observe  their  order.  If  a  boy  wished  to 
mount  this  ladder,  what  would  he  first  do  ?  He  would  put  his 
foot  on  the  step.  On  which  ?  Would  you  say  on  the  one  step  ? 
No,  teacher  ;  on  the  first  step.  And  then  on  the  two  step  ?  No  ; 
on  the  second.  And  so  on,  to  the  tenth.  When  would  you  say, 
"  One  step,  two  steps,  three  steps,"  &c.  ?  When  simply  counting 
how  many  there  are.  And  when  would  you  say,  "  First  step, 
second  step,"  &c.  ?  When  using-  the  steps  in  going  up  or 


148  NUMBER. FIRST   STEP. 

down,  or  when  thinking  of  them  as  coming  before  or  after  each 
other. 

If  these  ordinal  names  are  already  known  to  the  children,  as 
some  of  them  will  probably  be,  the  teacher  will  merely  have  to 
superintend  the  correct  application  of  them.  If,  however,  they 
are  not  known,  as  may  be  the  case  with  very  young  children,  one 
child  may  be  called  out  and  placed  in  front  of  the  class,  ready, 
when  directed  by  the  teacher,  to  place  his  hand  on  each  round, 
beginning  with  the  lowest,  as  he  supposes  himself  climbing  to  the 
top.  As  each  round  is  touched,  the  teacher  may  give  its  ordinal 
name  of  first,  second,  third,  fourth,  &c.,  to  tenth,  the  whole  class 
pronouncing  it  after  her.  After  several  repetitions  of  this  ascend- 
ing process,  the  descending  enumeration  may  begin,  and  be  fol- 
lowed out  in  the  same  way.  The  teacher  may  then  vary  the 
exercise  by  enumerating  from  first  to  tenth,  and  from  tenth  to 
first,  immediately.  After  this  the  teacher  should  require  the  chil- 
dren to  give  the  ordinal  name  of  each  step  when  pointed  out  by 
another. 

The  attainments  of  the  children  may  be  tested,  by  their  being 
required  to  lay  the  hand  upon  any  round  named  by  another,  and 
again  to  give  the  name  of  any  round  on  which  the  teacher  places 
the  hand.  They  may  be  asked  to  say  what  is  the  name  of  that 
step  which  is  above  the  second,  and  of  that  below  it ;  and  then  to 
give  the  name  of  each  alternate  step,  beginning  with  the  first,  so 
as  to  elicit  the  series — -first,  third,  fifth,  seventh,  ninth  ;  and  then 
starting  from  the  second,  so  as  to  produce  the  series — second, 
fourth,  sixth,  eighth,  tenth.  This  may  be  done  also  in  descending 
order,  beginning  consecutively  with  tenth,  and  ninth. 

In  applying  the  ordinals  to  other  groups  of  objects,  an  attrac- 
tive illustration  might  be  afforded  by  placing  a  class  of  ten 
children  in  front  of  the  gallery,  in  which  the  relative  position  of 
each  individual  might  be  ascertained  and  described.  Small  ob- 
jects, which  may  be  easily  moved  from  place  to  place,  and  put  in 
a  variety  of  relative  positions,  are  most  useful  in  lessons  such  as 
these.  The  number  of  the  objects  presented  should  be  first  deter- 
mined, and  then  their  relative  position.  One  of  them  may  then 
be  moved  into  a  new  place.  The  effect  upon  the  whole  series,  as 


NUMBER. FIRST   STEP. 


149 


well  as  upon  the  single  object  moved,  will  attract  attention,  and 
deepen  impressions  already  made. 

A  few  original  miscellaneous  questions  may  now  be  asked,  as 
tests  of  acquirement. 

What  is  the  first  meal  of  every  day?  What  the  second? 
What  the  third  ? 

In  what  place  does  this  child  stand  in  this  class  ?  &c. 


III. EXEKCISES. 

This  First  Step  may  conclude  with  the  following  series  of  ex- 
ercises, which  are  valuable  as  affording  practice  on  the  numbers 
which  the  children  have  learnt  to  distinguish  and  to  express  by 
name. 

The  Gradual  Increase  of  Numbers  from  One  to  Ten. 

To  lead  the  children  to  form  an  accurate  idea  of  the  increase 
of  numbers,  the  teacher  should  draw  lines  on  the  slate  in  the  fol- 
lowing order,  and  afterward  call  on  the  children  to  name  the  num- 
bers as  they  are  successively  pointed  to,  and  to  say  how  two  is 
formed  by  adding  one  to  one,  three  by  adding  one  to  two,  &c. : — 


I 

I      I 
I      I      I 
I      I      I      I 

The  teacher  may  then  point  to  any  number,  asking  the  chil- 
dren to  name  it,  and  then  to  tell  what  is  the  number  next  above 
it,  and  what  the  next  below  it. 

Again,  «t  number  may  be  mentioned,  and  the  children  required 
to  say  what  numbers  are  next  to  it,  above  and  below. 


150  NUMBER. FIRST    STEP. 

The  children  may  then  be  called  on  to  state,  first  by  means  of 
strokes,  and  then  in  words,  what  number  is  between  any  two  num- 
bers named ;  as,  what  numbers  there  are  between  seven  and  nine ; 
four  and  six  ;  eight  and  ten,  &c. 

Lastly,  the  teacher  should  lead  the  children  to  see  that  num- 
bers naturally  increase  by  unity,  and  that  each  number  above  unity 
is  greater  ly  one  than  that  preceding  it.  This  will  prepare  the 
way  for  the  process  of  addition :  thus,  one  and  one  are  two,  two 
and  one  are  three,  three  and  one  are  four,  four  and  one  are  five, 
&c.,  to  ten.  Again :  two  is  one  and  one,  three  is  two  and  one, 
four  is  three  and  one,  &c.,  to  ten ;  or,  two  is  one  more  than  one, 
three  is  one  more  than  two,  four  is  one  more  than  three,  &c. ;  or, 
in  inverse  order,  ten  are  nine  more  one,  nine  are  eight  more 
one,  eight  are  seven  more  one,  seven  are  six  more  one,  &c.,  to  two. 

Comparison  of  Numbers  with  each  other  as  to  their  General 
Magnitude. 

EXERCISES. — It  is  not  here  intended  to  measure  the  actual 
amount  of  difference  between  numbers,  but  only  to  compare  them 
with  each  other  as  to  their  general  magnitude. 

In  three  and  four,  which  is  the  greater  ? 

And  in  two  and  six ;  in  three  and  five  ;  in  four  and  eight ;  in 
eight  and  nine  ?  &c. — which  is  in  each  case  the  greater  number  ? 

Tell  me  a  number  which  is  more  than  three. 

Now  name  a  number  that  is  more  than  six ;  another  greater 
than  eight,  &c. 

Tell  me  a  number  that  is  less  than  eight. 

Another  that  is  less  than  six,  five,  and  three,  respectively. 

Tell  me  all  the  numbers  you  know  that  are  less  than  five,  four, 
six,  eight,  one,  &c. 

Now  tell  me  all  the  numbers  you  know  that  are  more  than 
five,  four,  six,  eight,  one,  &c. 

Four,  two,  six — which  is  the  least  of  the  numbers  I  have 
named?  Which  is  the  largest?  Then  two  is  the  smallest,  or 
least  of  the  three,  and  six  is  the  largest  of  the  three.*  Now  what 
can  I  say  about  the  four  ?  That  it  is  larger  than  the  least  of  the 


NUMBER.— FIRST   STEP.  151 

three,  and  smaller  than  the  largest  of  the  three ;  for  these  reasons 
it  is  called  the  mean,  or  middle  number. 

Tell  me  a  mean  number  between  three  and  five ;  between  four 
and  eight,  five  and  seven,  two  and  eight,  eight  and  ten,  seven  and 
nine,  &c.,  respectively. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. — I  had  eight  apples,  and  my  brother  six; 
which  of  us  had  the  greater  number  ? 

That  child  is  five  years  old,  and  the  one  next  him  is  seven ; 
which  is  the  elder  ? 

If  one  child  sleep  eight  hours,  and  another  ten  hours,  which 
of  them  sleeps  the  longer  ? 

It  is  four  miles  from  Oswego  to  Scriba,  and  ten  miles  from 
Oswego  to  New  Haven  ;  which  of  these  two  places  is  the  greater 
distance  from  Oswego  ? 

The  teacher  should  ask  a  variety  of  questions  such  as  these. 
They  may  be  invented  as  they  are  needed. 

Addition  and  Subtraction. 

Olject — To  teach  the  addition  and  subtraction  of  numbers 
under  ten. 

Plan. — This  is  exemplified  in  detail  in  the  exercises  which 
follow. 

It  is  clear  that  the  simple  enumeration  of  a  series  of  numbers 
gradually  increasing  by  one,  call  the  process  by  what  name  we 
please,  is  in  fact  an  exercise  in  the  addition  of  ONE,  and  that  the 
simple  enumeration  of  a  similar  series  in  descending  order,  is  in 
fact  the  subtraction  of  ONE.  Hitherto,  however,  the  gradual  in- 
crease or  decrease  of  numbers  has  been  presented  as  a  matter  of 
sensible  perception,  rather  than  as  an  appeal  to  the  reasoning 
faculty  of  the  mind.  "While,  however,  it  is  almost  impossible,  and 
perhaps  equally  undesirable,  to  separate  these  two  processes,  it  is 
important  that  the  child  should  now  be  taught  to  use  those  num- 
bers of  which  he  has  gained  a  clear  perception,  in  a  manner  more 
allied  to  an  act  of  reasoning.  Neither  will  it  do  for  him  to  enu- 
merate by  ones  all  his  life ;  he  must  learn  to  bound  over  the 
minute  intervals  which  separate  one  number  from  another,  and 


152  NTJMBEK. FIRST   STEP. 

still  to  be  sure  of  his  ground.  He  must  learn  to  be  as  ready  in 
enumerating,  ascending  and  descending,  by  nine,  as  he  is  in  enu- 
merating by  one.  .  This  facility  is  to  be  attained  by  a  graduated 
series  of  exercises,  with  the  aid  of  objects,  which  shall  make  each 
step  sure  before  a  further  step  is  ventured  upon. 

ADDITION. 

1.  The  Addition  of  the  Number  One. 

The  children  are  supposed  to  have  become  familiar  with  the 
increase  of  numbers  from  one  to  ten,  as  carried  out  practically  by 
the  exhibition  of  objects.  Lines  should  now  be  drawn  on  the 
slate  in  the  order  indicated  by  the  following  table,  the  children 
observing  and  describing  each  line  as  it  is  constructed : 

|  and  |  are? 

|  |  and  |  are? 

|  |  |  and  |  are? 

|  |  I  I  and  |  are? 

to 
I  I  I  I  I  I  I  II  and  |  are? 

The  teacher,  drawing  two  lines,  says :  "  One  line  and  one 
line  are  ? "  The  children  take  up  her  words,  and  complete 
the  sentence :  "  One  line  and  one  line  are  two  lines."  Again : 
"  Two  and  one  are  ?  "  "  Three ;"  and  so  on,  to  "  Nine  and 
one  are  ten."  Their  answers  may  be  written  in  strokes  as  they 
are  given,  each  opposite  its  component  numbers. 

The  teacher  should  now  exercise  the  children  in  the  addition 
of  the  number  one  to  other  numbers  without  the  use  of  objects  or 
strokes ;  bringing  these  forward,  hpwever,  when  necessary  to  prove 
the  correctness  of  calculations,  or  to  detect  errors. 

The  subject  may  now  be  illustrated  by  some  miscellaneous 
questions,  such  as  the  mind  of  an  apt  teacher  will  at  once  be  able 
to  propose.  A  few  examples  are  given  : 

James  has  one  orange.  If  I  give  him  one  more,  how  many 
will  he  then  have  ? 

Jane  has  eight  walnuts.  If  her  father  give  her  one  more,  how 
many  will  she  have  ? 


NUMBER. FIRST   STEP. 


153 


A  boy  had  two  rabbits  given  to  him.  His  father  bought  him 
one  more  ;  how  many  had  he  ? 

A  baby  had  nine  teeth.  One  day,  another  came ;  how  many 
teeth  had  the  baby  in  all  ? 

2.   The  Addition  of  Two. 

The  mind  of  the  child,  having  acquired  the  power  of  adding 
ONE  once,  will  now  be  prepared  to  add  it  twice ;  for  into  this  the 
addition  of  two  resolves  itself. 

The  teacher  should  arrange  objects,  or  draw  lines  on  the  slate, 
in  the  following  order  : 


I    I 


I    I    I    I    I 

The  children  being  required  to  repeat  together,  first  with  the 
use  of  the  lines,  and  then  without : 

"  One  line  and  two  lines  are  three  lines  j 
Two  lines  and  two  lines  are  four  lines ; 
Three  lines  and  two*  lines  are  five  lines ;" 
to 

"  Eight  lines  and  two  lines  are  ten  lines." 

The  teacher  should  then  question  the  children  individually 
upon  the  lesson,  without  any  reference  to  order  of  numbers, 
avoiding  any  result  exceeding  the  number  ten. 

Here,  also,  a  few  practical  questions  should  be  put  to  the  class, 
as  in  the  addition  of  one  : 

Three  boys  were  going  to  school.  Two  others  joined  them ; 
how  many  boys  were  there  then  ? 

Two  little  girls  went  to  buy  bread.  One  of  them  carried  home 
four  loaves,  the  other  two  loaves ;  how  many  loaves  had  they  in 
all? 

7* 


154 


NUMBER. FIKST    STEP. 


In  a  working-man's  cottage  there  are  three  rooms  on  the 
ground  floor,  and  two  rooms  up  stairs ;  how  many  rooms  does  the 
cottage  contain  ? 

The  apt  teacher  will  invent  many  other  simple  illustrative 
questions  of  this  kind,  until  the  class  has  had  sufficient  practice. 

3.  Addition  of  Three. 

This  is  to  be  taught  on  the  same  plan. 

The  teacher  arranges  objects,  or  draws  lines  on  the  blackboard, 
in  the  following  order : 


I 

I    I 

I    I    I 

I    I    I    I 

I    I    I    I    I 

The  children  then  say  together,  as  each  line  is  pointed  to . 
"  One  line  and  three  lines  are  four  lines ; 
Two  lines  and  three  lines  are  five  lines ; 
Three  lines  and  three  lines  are  six  lines ;" 

and  so  on,  to  ten  lines. 

The  children  should  then,  as  before,  recapitulate  the  lesson, 
without  reference  to  the  objects  or -lines  on  the  board.  In  doing 
this,  the  word  lines,  &c.,  may  be  omitted,  saying  only,  "  One  and 
three  are  four ;  two  and  three  are  five  ;  three  and  three  are  six," 
&c. ;  only  do  not  suggest  the  answer  to  the  children,  nor  lead  on 
too  rapidly. 

After  this  repetition,  as  in  every  other  lesson  of  this  kind, 
the  teacher  should  energetically  question  the  children  individually 
upon  it,  introducing  also  questions  bearing  upon  the  instruction 
given  in  preceding  lessons  on  the  same  subject.  The  necessity  of 
this  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  teachers. 
A  few  practical  illustrations  are  given  by  way  of  example  : 

A  boy  has  two  cents.  His  uncle  gives  him  three  cents ;  how 
much  has  he  then  ? 

There  are  five  apples  in  a  basket ;  how  many  will  there  be,  if 
I  put  in  three  apples  more  ? 


. F1KST    STEP.  155 

I  gave  a  boy  six  cents  yesterday,  and  I  have  given  him  three 
cents  to-day ;  how  many  cents  have  I  given  him  in  all  ? 

A  boy,  fond  of  playing  at  marbles,  has  a  hole  in  the  pocket  in 
which  he  keeps  them.  He  lost  seven  marbles  last  night,  and  three 
this  morning ;  how  many  has  he  lost  ? 

4.  Addition  of  Four,  Five,  Six,  Seven,  Eight,  and  Nine. 

These  operations  need  no  further  illustration  ;  the  plan  adopted 
is  the  same  as  with  the  previous  numbers.  The  teacher  must  care- 
fully avoid  advancing  too  rapidly,  and  must  not  be  weary  under 
the  frequent  repetition  of  previous  instruction.  It  must  be  con- 
stantly borne  in  mind,  that  as  the  children  are  supposed  to  know 
little  or  nothing,  as  yet,  of  any  number  more  than  ten,  all  opera- 
tions are  to  be  so  adapted  as  to  involve  no  higher  number. 

ILLUSTRATIONS   OF   THE   FOREGOING    EXERCISES. 

The  scope  afforded  by  the  preceding  lessons  is  so  narrow,  that 
it  is  found  difficult  in  actual  practice  to  extend  the  instruction  upon 
them  to  that  point  which  nevertheless  must  be  reached,  if  they  are 
to  be  fully  comprehended  and  indelibly  fixed  on  the  mind. 

The  following  exercises  have  been  devised  in  order  to  meet 
this  difficulty.  They  will  be  found  useful,  as  presenting  the  num- 
bers to  the  observation  of  the  children  in  new  aspects,  and  as  exer- 
cising their  faculties  upon  them  in  a  manner  less  formal  and  me- 
thodical than  the  lessons  already  given,  whilst  at  the  same  time 
the  operation  of  addition  is  adhered  to. 

1.  To  FIND  WHAT  NUMBER  MUST  BE  ADDED  TO  A  GIVEN  NUM- 
BER IN  ORDER  TO  PRODUCE  A  THIRD  NUMBER. 

In  some  of  the  above  lessons  on  this  Step,  two  numbers  have 
been  given,  and  the  children  required  to  find  a  third  number  which 
should  be  the  sum  of  both. 

In  the  following  exercise  two  numbers  are  given,  the  one  being 
always  larger  than  the  other,  and  the  children  are  required  to  find 
what  number  must  be  added  to  the  smaller  number  to  make  it 
equal  to  the  larger  number. 

The  use  of  objects  or  lines  must  be  continued.     Suppose  the 


156  NUMBER. FIRST   STEP. 

given  numbers  to  be  two  and  three,  the  teacher  arranges  objects 
or  strokes  thus : 

II  III 

and  asks,   "  How  many  strokes  must  I  add  to  the  first  of  these 
groups,  in  order  to  make  it  equal  to  the  second  of  them  ?  "     The 
teacher  may  proceed:    "What  must  I  add  to  two  lines,  in  order, 
to  make  three  lines  ?  "  or,  "  What  must  I  add  to  two,  if  I  wish 
to  make  it  three  f  " 

This  method  must  be  pursued  with  all  the  numbers  up  to  ten, 
those  numbers  being  commenced  with  which  present  the  difference 
of  Gne.  After  this,  those  exhibiting  a  difference  of  two  ;  this  pro- 
gression being  maintained  till  ten  is  reached.  As  the  lessons  pro- 
ceed, the  objects  or  lines  may  to  some  extent  be  laid  aside,  and 
referred  to  chiefly  for  correction  of  error,  or  for  proof  of  accuracy. 

EXAMPLES. 

To  find  what  must  "be  added  to  a  number  to  produce  another 
number  larger  than  the  first  by  one  : 

To  FIYE  to  produce  six  ? 

"     SIX  "  SEVEN? 

"     SEVEN  "  EIGHT? 

"     THREE  "  FOUR?    &C. 

To  find  what  must  be  added  to  a  number  to  produce  another 
number  larger  than  the  first  by  two  : 

To  TWO  to  make  it  FOUR  ? 

"     FOUR  "  SIX  ? 

"     FIVE    ^          "  SEVEN? 

"     EIGHT  "  TEN?     &C. 

To  produce  another  number  larger  than- the  first  by  three: 
To  THREE  to  form  six  ? 

"    FOUR  "  SEVEN? 

"    FIVE  "  EIGHT? 

"    SEVEN         "  TEN?    &C. 


NUMBER. — FIRST   STEP.  157 

Larger  than  the  first  ly  four : 

To  TWO  to  form  six? 

"     FOUR          <k          EIGHT? 

"     FIVE  "          NINE? 

"     SIX  "          TEN?    &C. 

2.  THE  PRODUCING  A  NEW  NUMBER  BY  COMBINING  TWO 
OTHER  NUMBERS. 

EXAMPLES. 

To  produce  the  number  FOUR  in  every  possible  mode  : 
In  the  first  place,  the  teacher  questions  the  children  in  such  a 

manner  as  to  lead  them  to  dispose  objects,  or  to  draw  lines  on  the 

board,  according  to  the  following  arrangement : 

II  II 

I  II   I 

The  class,  with  their  attention  closely  directed  to  this  arrange- 
ment, is  then  to  be  required  to  repeat  aloud : 

"  Four  lines  are  formed  by 

"  Three  lines  and  one  line. 
Two  lines  and  two  lines. 
One  line  and  three  lines." 

The  children  should  then  be  required  to  describe  from  memory 
the  various  modes  of  producing  the  number  four,  after  which  they 
may  be  called  upon  singly  to  come  forward  and  construct  the 
number  four  in  every  practicable  manner,  with  objects  or  by  lines. 

To  produce  FIVE  in  the  same  manner : 

Here  also  the  children  should  first  be  led  to  the  construction 
of  the  lesson  with  something  they  can  handle,  or  examine  by  the 
eye.  In  the  present  case  the  arrangement  will  be  this : 

I  I    I    I  I 
III                          II 

II  III 
I                          I    I    I    I 


158  NUMBER. FIKST   STEP. 

To  be  read  as  before.  Suppose  the  construction  to  be  of 
books : 

"  Five  books  are  formed  by 

"  Four  books  and  one  book. 
Three  books  and  two  books. 
Two  books  and  three  books. 
One  book  and  four  books." 

This  to  be  followed  by  the  repetition  from  memory :  "  Four 
and  one  are  five ;  three  and  two  are  five ;  two  and  three  are  five ; 
one  and  four  are  five." 

To  produce  the  number  six  on  the  same  plan : 

"  One  and  five  are  six. 
Two  and  four  are  six. 
Three  and  three  are  six. 
Four  and  two  are  six. 
Five  and  one  are  six." 

To  produce  the  number  SEVEN  : 

"  Six  and  one  are  seven. 
Five  and  two  are  seven. 
Four  and  three  are  seven. 
Three  and  four  are  seven. 
Two  and  five  are  seven. 
One  and  six  are  seven." 

These  lessons  should  be  extended  to  the  number  ten,  each 
of  them  to  be  followed  by  a  variety  of  illustrative  examples  for 
practice  ;  such,  for  example,  as  the  following  : 

I  buy  a  book  for  eight  cents.  If  I  cannot  pay  for  it  in  one 
payment,  in  how  many  ways  can  I  pay  for  it  in  two  pay- 
ments ? 

A  boy  has  to  visit  his  aunt,  who  lives  at  a  town  nine  miles 
from  his  home.  His  mother  tells  him  he  may  rest  for  an  hour 
once  on  the  way.  If  he  rest  at  the  fourth  milestone,  how  many 


NUMBER. — FIKST    STEP.  159 

miles  will  he  have  to  walk  when  he  sets  off  again  ?     How  many 
if  he  rest  at  the  fifth  ?     At  the  sixth  ?     At  the  seventh  ? 

3.  THE    SIMPLE    ADDITION    OF    THREE    OK    FOUR    NUMBERS,  OB 
MORE. 

The  use  of  objects  or  lines  should  at  first  be  adhered  to  in  this 
exercise  also,  and  the  children  should  repeat  aloud  the  given  num- 
bers, as  well  as  each  successive  step  of  the  process.  Thus,  sup- 
posing the  numbers  given  to  be  two,  three,  and  four,  they  should 
say  : 

"  Two  and  three  more  are  five ;  five  and  three  more  are 
eight ;"  or,  "  Three  and  three  are  six ;  six  and  four  are  ten." 

"When  the  class  has  had  some  practice  in  this  kind  of  addition, 
the  teacher  may  slowly  pronounce  the  given  numbers,  and  the 
class  be  required  to  give  the  final  sum  only,  the  intermediate  re- 
sults being  omitted. 

The  addition  of  other  number&is  to  be  carried  out  on  the  same 
plan.  The  exercises  on  this  head  will  of  necessity  be  limited,  as 
no  result  exceeding  ten  should  be  attempted ;  but  they  may  be 
varied,  and  many  examples  given  of  the  same  nature  as  those 
before  introduced. 

4.  THE  PRODUCING  A  FIXED  NUMBER  BY  COMBINING  THREE 
OTHER  NUMBERS. 

These  exercises  are  to  be  illustrated  in  the  same  manner  as 
'those  on  the  combination  of  two  numbers.  Where  objects  are 
used,  the  teacher  may  put  them  together  as  the  children  audibly 
perform  the  addition.  Two  examples  of  this  exercise  may  suffice. 

To  produce  the  number  SEVEN  by  every  possible  combination  of 
three  numbers : 

The  arrangement  of  lines  or  of  objects  will  be  this : 

I  I  I   I    I   I   I  =  I  I  I  I  I  I  I 

I  II  I   I   I   I  =  I  I  I  I  I  I  I 

I  III  I   I   I  =  I  I  I  I  I  I  I 

II  II  III  =  I  I  I  I  I  I  I 


160  NUMBER. — FIKST   STEP. 

To  produce  the  number  TEN  : 

One   and  two   and  seven  are  ten. 

One      "  three   "  six  "  ten. 

One-    "  four     "  five  "  ten. 

Two     "  three   "  five  "  ten. 

Three  "  three    "  four  "  ten. 

Four    "  four     "  two  "  ten. 

Six      "  two      "  two  "  ten. 

"When  the  lines  have  been  gone  over  in  this  order,  it  may 
be  useful,  without  changing  the  position  of  the  strokes  on  the 
board,  to  calculate  each  line  backward,  reading  the  top  line  of  the 
second  table,  for  instance,  thus :  "  Seven  and  two  and  one  are 
ten,"  &c. 

The  producing  a  number  by  the  combination  of  four  numbers, 
will  suggest  itself  to  the  teacher,  as  a  simple  extension  of  the 
method  recommended  above. 

Each  separate  exercise  should  be  illustrated  by  examples  hav- 
ing an  application  to  visible  objects  and  the  events  of  e very-day 
life. 

SUBTRACTION. 

The  children,  having  acquired  facility  in  increasing  numbers, 
by  combining  them  in  the  process  of  addition,  must  now  be  led  on 
to  the  equally  important  operation  of  separating  them  in  the  pro- 
cess of  subtraction.  The  use  of  objects  must  still  be  continued. 
The  lessons  in  addition  having  been  entered  into  at  so  much 
length,  that  which  follows  will  be  given  more  briefly.  The 
teacher  must  not,  however,  suppose  that  the  same  patient  repeti- 
tions, the  same  varied  examples,  are  not  necessary.  "Very  young 
children  cannot  be  well  taught  in  any  other  way. 


NUMBER. FIRST    STEP. 


161 


1.  TO  TAKE  ONE  GIVEN  NUMBEB  FROM  ANOTHER. 

The  Subtraction  of  the  Number  One  : 


I    I    I 


I 

I    I 

I    I    I 

I    I    I    I 


Objects  are  to  be  arranged,  or  strokes  to  be  made  on  the  board, 
in  the  order  indicated  by  the  column  on  the  left.  The  teacher 
should  then  remove  one  object  to  a  little  distance,  or  rub  out  one 
stroke  from  each  line  of  strokes  successively,  the  children  repeating 
aloud,  as  this  is  done,  "  Two  less  one  is  one ;  three  less  one  are 
two,"  &c.,  through  the  whole  series  of  subtractions,  and  leaving 
the  objects  as  represented  in  the  right  column;  or,  if  lines  are 
used,  leaving  the  column  on  the  right  everywhere  diminished  by 
one. 

It  is  important,  as  an  exercise,  that  the  operations  of  addition 
should  be  constantly  returned  to,  and  it  is  found  in  practice  desir- 
able to  combine  them  with  those  of  subtraction,  as  helping  to  a 
clearer  comprehension  of  both  processes.  To  effect  this,  after  the 
above  lesson  on  subtraction  has  been  given,  it  may  be  recapitu- 
lated, or  a  second  lesson  may  be  given,  with  the  additional  exer- 
cise of  recombining  the  numbers  which  have  been  separated  by 
subtraction ;  thus : 


Two  less  one  is  one. 
Three  less  one  are  two. 
Four  less  one  are  three. 

Ten  less  one  are  Time. 


to 


One  and  one  are  two. 
Two  and  one  are  three. 
Three  and  one  are  four, 

Nine  and  one  are  ten. 


After  this  lesson  the  children  should  be  separately  questioned 
on  it,  and  exercised  in  its  application  to  objects  of  daily  use. 


162  NUMBER. — FIKST   STEP. 

The  subtraction  of  TWO  should  now  be  taught  by  objects  or 
strokes,  as  in  the  case  of  the  subtraction  of  one,  and,  after  that, 
the  subtraction  and  addition  of  two  in  one  operation,  thus  : 

Ten  less  two  are  eight.  Eight  and  two  are  ten. 

Nine  less  two  are  seven.  Seven  and  two  are  nine. 

Eight  less  two  are  six.  Six  and  two  are  eight, 

to 

Three  less  two  are  one.  One  and  two  are  three. 

The  subtraction  of  THREE,  followed  by  the  addition  and  sub- 
traction of  three  in  one  operation : 

Ten  less  three  are  seven.  Seven  and  three  are  ten. 

Nine  less  three  are  six.  Six  and  three  are  nine, 

to 
Four  less  three  are  one.  One  and  three  are  four. 

Every  successive  number  must  be  treated  in  the  same  manner 
till  the  number  nine  is  reached,  each  lesson  being  frequently  re- 
peated, and  each  being  illustrated  by  questions  involving  the  prac- 
tical application  of  the  number  under  consideration. 

2.  SUBTRACTION  AND  RECOMBINATION  OF  SEVERAL  NUMBERS 
IN  SUCCESSION. 

To  subtract  in  succession  the  numbers  one,  two,  three,  and 
four,  from  the  number  five,  recombining  each  by  addition : 

Five  less  one  are  four.  Four  and  one  are  five. 

Five  less  two  are  three.  Three  and  two  are  five,  &c. 

To  subtract  the  numbers  one  to  five  from  six : 

Six  less  one  are  five.  Five  and  one  are  six. 

Six  less  two  are  four.  Four  and  two  are  six,  &c. 

The  intermediate  numbers  to  be  similarly  treated,  as  far  as  the 
subtraction  of  the  numbers  one  to  nine  from  ten : 

Ten  less  one  are  nine.  Nine  and  one  are  ten. 

Ten  less  two  are  eight.  Eight  and  two  are  ten, 

to 

Ten  less  nine  are  one.  One  and  nine  are  ten. 


NUMBER. — FIRST   STEP.  163 

This  exercise  should  be  followed  by  a  series  of  miscellaneous 
questions. 

3.  TO    FIND   WHAT    NUMBER    MUST    BE    TAKEN    FROM  A  GIVEN 
NUMBER  IN  ORDER  TO  REDUCE  IT  TO  ANOTHER  GIVEN  NUMBER. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  lesson  is  the  inversion  of  one  of  the 
exercises  in  addition.  The  teacher  should  draw  two  groups  of 
lines  on  the  slate,  or  arrange  two  sets  of  objects  in  unequal  num- 
ber, and  require  the  children  to  decide  how  many  must  be  taken 
from  the  larger  number  to  make  it  equal  the  smaller  number.  The 
subtraction  should  also  be  practically  carried  out,  that  the  result 
may  be  seen  to  be  accurate.  Begin  with  numbers  having  the  dif- 
ference ONE,  increasing  the  difference  progressively. 

EXAMPLES. 

"What  number  must  be  taken  from  the  number  ten,  to  make  it 
nine  ?  eight  ?  seven  ? — to  one,  successively. 

"What  number  must  be  taken  from  the  number  nine,  to  reduce 
it  to  seven  ?  five  ?  &c. 

"What  from  eight,  to  reduce  it  to  five  ?   three  ?   two  ?  &c. 

The  teacher  must  be  careful  that  a  sufficient  number  of  exam- 
ples are  given  and  well  understood  before  proceeding  to  a  new 
lesson. 

4.  THE    COMPARING   TWO  NUMBERS    IN  ORDER  TO  FIND  THEIB 
DIFFERENCE. 

This  idea  may  be  developed  by  simple  questions.  A  few  ex- 
amples are  given : 

You  have  four  apples,  your  brother  has  five  apples ;  which  of 
you  has  the  more  apples  ? 

But  if  you  have  five  marbles,  and  your  brother  four  marbles, 
how  many  more  have  you  than  he  ? 

If  you  have  six  peaches,  and  he  four  peaches,  how  many  more 
peaches  have  you  than  he  ? 

Objects  may  then  be  arranged  on  the  table,  or  lines  drawn  on 


164:  NUMBER. —FIRST    STEP. 

the  slate  in  two  groups,  one  containing  five,  the  other. four.  The 
class  may  repeat,  "  Five  is  one  more  than  four ;  four  is  one  less 
than  five."  One  by  one  the  number  may  be  diminished,  the  class 
in  each  instance  explaining  the  result ;  thus  : 

Comparison  of  five  with  all  numbers  below  it : 

Five  is  two  more  than  three. 
Three  is  two  less  than  five. 
Five  is  three  more  than  two. 
Two  is  three  less  than  five,  &c. 

Comparison  of  seven  with  all  numbers  below  it : 

Seven  is  one  more  than  six. 
Six  is  one  less  than  seven. 
Seven  is  two  more  than  five. 
Five  is  two  less  than  seven. 
Seven  is  three  more  than  four. 
Four  is  three  less  than  seven. 

The  word  "  difference  "  may  be  used  as  these  exercises  become 
familiar  : — "  The  difference  between  seven  and  six  is  one ;  the  dif- 
ference between  seven  and  five  is  two,"  &c. 

5.  THE  SUBTRACTION  OF  A  GIVEN  NUMBER  FROM  THE  UNEX- 
PRESSED SUM  OF  TWO  OTHER  GIVEN  NUMBERS. 

Take  six  from  the  sum  of  five  and  five. 

"  nine  u  three  and  seven. 

u  three  "  six  and  six. 

"  five  "  eight  and  two. 

"  eight  "  six  and  four. 

"  six  "  four  and  four. 

"  four  u  seven  and  three,  &c. 

These  examples  may  be  varied  to  a  great  extent,  at  the  discre- 
tion.of  the  teacher.  They  should  be  followed  by  a  series  of  well- 
adapted  miscellaneous  practical  questions. 


NUMBER. FIRST   STEP.  165 

6.  THE    SUBTRACTION  OF  A  GIVEN    NUMBER   FROM   THE    UNEX- 
PRESSED SUM  OF  THREE  OTHER  GIVEN  NUMBERS. 

Take  six  from  the  sum  of  three,  three,  and  three. 
"     five  "  three,  four,  and  three. 

"     four  "  seven,  two,  and  one. 

"     seven          "  six,  two,  and  three,  &c. 

7.  THE  SUBTRACTION  OF  THE  SUM  OF  TWO  LOW  NUMBERS 
FROM  THE  SUM  OF  TWO  NUMBERS  OF  HIGHER  VALUE. 

From  the  sum  of  six  and  four  take  that  of  five  and  three. 
u  six  and  three          "          four  and  two. 

"  five  and  five  "          four  and  four,  &c. 

8.  THE  SUBTRACTION  OF  THE  SUM  OF  THREE  LOW  NUMBERS 
FROM  THE  SUM  OF  TWO  NUMBERS  OF  HIGHER  VALUE. 

From  four  and  five  take  two,  two,  and  two. 
"      six  and  three    "     three,  two,  and  one. 
"      four  and  four     "     two,  three,  and  two. 
"     three  and  five  "     one,  four,  and  two,  &c. 

9.  PROMISCUOUS  ADDITIONS  AND  SUBTRACTIONS. 

Add  seven  to  two,  and  take  away  five. 
"    six  to  three,  "  four,  &c. 

From  the  sum  of  seven  and  two  take  away  six. 

u  five  and  three  u          four,  &c. 

At  first,  these  exercises  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  carried 
out  with  the  use  of  objects  or  lines,  and  the  teacher  should  be 
careful  not  to  discontinue  the  use  of  these  too  soon.  A  variety  of 
miscellaneous  questions,  bearing  upon  all  the  lessons  hitherto  given 
under  the  heads  of  addition  and  subtraction,  should  be  introduced 
before  the  next  Step  is  commenced  upon. 


166  NUMBER. — FIKST   STEP. 

MULTIPLICATION    AND    DIVISION. ONE    TO    TEN. 

Multiplication. 

Object. — To  lead  the  children  to  the  comprehension  of  the 
operation  of  multiplying  numbers  into  each  other,  to  prove  to1 
them  that  this  is  but  a  simplification  and  abbreviation  of  the  pro- 
cess of  addition  which  they  have  already  acquired,  and  to  make 
them  familiar  with  the  arrangement  of  numbers  called  the  Multi- 
plication Table. 

Plan. — Illustrate  the  subject  by  means  of  objects  or  lines,  as 
indicated  in  the  following  outline  : 

In  the  process  of  addition  the  children  have  learnt  to  find  a 
new  number,  which  is  the  sum  of  two,  three,  or  four  numbers, 
which  may  be  of  differing  value.  They  are  now  to  be  taught  to 
find  the  result  of  taking  one  and  the  same  number  a  given  num- 
ber of  times.  Make  one  stroke  on  the  large  slate,  and  ask,  What 
have  I  done  ?  You  have  made  one  stroke.  How  many  times 
have  I  made  it  ?  You  have  made  one  stroke  once.  What  num- 
ber do  I  get  when  I  make  one  stroke  once  ?  You  get  one.  If  I 
put  my  hand  into  a  basket  once,  and  take  out  one  apple,  how 
many  apples  do  I  get  ?  You  get  one.  How  much  is  one  taken 
one  time  ?  It  is  one. 

Make  one  stroke  more  on  the  slate  beside  the  other.  What 
have  I  done  ?  You  have  put  one  stroke  to  one  stroke,  and  now 
there  are  two  strokes.  Yes ;  one  and  one  are  ? — Two.  How 
many  times  have  I  made  one  stroke  ?  Two  times.  Then  two 
times  one  are  ? — Two.  Pursue  this  exercise  till  one  has  been 
taken  ten  times ;  in  each  case,  as  one  is  added,  first  calling  out  ob- 
servation on  the  process,  as  being  one  of  addition,  and  then  as 
being  one  of  multiplication. 

Place  two  cubes  of  wood  on  the  table.  How  many  cubes  are 
there  here  ?  There  are  two.  How  many  times  have  I  now  put 
two  cubes  on  the  table  ?  Once.  How  many  are  two  taken  one 
time  ?  Once  two  are  two.  Add  two  cubes  to  these.  What 
have  I  done  ?  You  have  added  two  cubes  to  the  two  which  were 
there  before.  How  many  cubes  are  there  on  the  table  now  ? 


NUMBER. — FIRST   STEP.  .       167 

There  are  four.  Yes ;  two  and  two  are  ? — Four.  How  many 
times  have  I  put  two  on  the  table  ?  You  have  done  so  twice. 
How  many  are  two  taken  twice  ?  Twice  two  are  four.  Let  two 
more  cubes  be  added.  "What  have  I  done  ?  You  have  put  two 
more  cubes  on  the  table.  How  many  were  there  before  I  added 
them  ?  There  were  two  and  two — four.  How  many  are  there 
now  ?  There  are  two  and  two  and  two — six.  How  many  times 
have  I  put  two  cubes  on  the  table  ?  Three  times.  Then  two 
taken  three  times  are  ? — Six.  Repeat :  Three  times  two  are  ? 
Six.  This  lesson  on  the  multiplication  of  two  should  be  carried 
to  "  Five  times  two  are  ten." 

Let  the  same  plan  be  carried  out  with  the  number  three,  as  far 
as  "  Three  times  three  are  nine  ;"  with  the  number  four,  as  far  as 
"  Two  times  four  are  eight ;"  and  with  five,  as  far  as  "  Two  times 
five  are  ten."  These  lessons  should  not  be  carried  beyond  this 
point  as  yet,  because  the  children  are  not  supposed  to  be  familiar 
with  numbers  more  than  ten,  the  higher  numbers  being  gradually 
introduced.  Little  is  gained  by  pressing  forward  quick  children 
to  the  higher  numbers ;  it  is  far  safer  to  proceed  gradually  and 
systematically. 

It  will  be  seen,  that  although  the  range  of  these  exercises  is 
necessarily  limited,  they  are  important,  as  awakening  perception 
of  a  new  mode  of  using  numbers.  When  the  children  have  gone 
through  them,  they  should  recapitulate  the  facts,  thus : 

Once  two  is  two.  Once  three  is  three. 

Twice  two  are  four.  Twice  three  are  six. 

Three  times  two  are  six.  Three  times  three  are  nine. 

Four  times  two  are  eight. 

Five  times  two  are  ten. 

Once  four  is  four.  Once  five  is  five. 

Twice  four  are  eight.  Twice  five  are  ten. 

Miscellaneous  practical  examples  should  follow  each  exercise. 

DIVISION. — ONE    TO    TEN. 

Object. — To  lead  the  children  to  the  comprehension  of  the 


168  NUMBER. FEBST   STEP. 

• 

operation  of  dividing  one  number  by  another,  and  to  teach  them 
to  divide  other  numbers  by  one,  two,  three,  four,  &c. 
Plan. — This  is  illustrated  in  the  following  exercises : 

1.  Make  two  lines  on  the  slate,  and  say,  Rub  out  two  lines 
from  the  slate.     How  many  times  can  you  take  away  two  from 

ktwo  ?  Once.  How  many  times  is  two  contained  in  two  ?  One 
time. 

Make  four  lines  on  the  slate,  and  say,  Rub  out  two  lines. 
"What  remain  ?  Two  lines  remain.  Rub  them  out.  What  re- 
main now  ?  There  are  none  left.  How  many  lines  were  there 
at  first  ?  There  were  four.  How  often  can  you  take  away  two 
from  four?  Twice.  How  often  is  two  contained  in  four? 
Twice. 

Now  I  make  six,  eight,  ten  lines  on  the  slate.  Try  how  often 
you  can  take  away  two  from  each  of  these  numbers. 

Now  I  place  three  cubes  on  the  table.  How  often  can  you 
take  three  cubes  away  from  them?  Once  only.  But  if  I  put 
three  cubes  on  the  table,  twice  over,  how  many  will  there  be  ? 
There  will  be  two  times  three,  or  six  cubes.  How  many  times 
can  I  take  three  away  from  six  ?  You  can  take  three  cubes  away 
twice.  How  often  are  three  contained  in  six  ?  Two  times. 

Now  I  make  three,  six,  and  nine  strokes  on  the  slate.  Tell 
me  how  often  each  of  these  numbers  contains  the  number  three, 
and  how  often  you  can  take  three  away  from  each  of  them. 

2.  The  Division  ~by  Two  of  Numbers  under  Ten. 

The  teacher  may  construct  the  following  table  upon  the  school 
(  slate,  in  order  to  illustrate  the  subject.     It  will  be  seen  that  it  in- 
cludes to  some  extent  the  exercises  on  multiplication,  as  assisting 
to  the  comprehension  of  the  process  of  division. 

How  much  is  twice  1  ?  2.  How  many  ones  in  2  ?  2. 

How  much  is  twice  2  ?  4.  How  many  twos  in  4  ?  2. 

How  much  is  twice  3  ?  6.  How  many"  twos  in  6  ?  3. 

How  much  is  twice  4  ?  8.  How  many  twos  in  8  ?  4. 

The  questions  should  then  be  put  in  another  form ;  as,  How 
often  is  two  contained  in  two  ?  in  four  ?  in  six  ?  in  eight  ?  How 
much  is  two,  four,  six,  and  eight,  divided  by  two  ? 


NUMBER. — SECOND   STEP.  -         169 

A  few  miscellaneous  questions  might  be  introduced,  even  at 
this  early  stage  of  the  subject,  to  make  the  nature  of  the  operation 
clear. 

If  I  measure  four  yards  of  cloth  by  a  yard  measure,  how  many 
times  shall  1  have  to  apply  it  to  the  cloth  ? 

If  I  measure  four  yards  of  cloth  by  a  measure  two  yards  long, 
how  often  will  the  length  of  the  measure  be  contained  in  the 
length  of  the  cloth  ? 

Into  how  many  sets  of  two  can  I  divide  eight  marbles  ? 

To  how  many  boys  can  I  give  four  pens,  if  I  give  one  pen  to 
each  of  them  ? 

To  how  many,  if  I  give  two  pens  to  each  of  them  ? 

A  farmer  and  his  son  are  going  to  market ;  they  wish  to  take 
four  baskets  of  apples  with  them ;  how  many  baskets  must  each 
of  them  carry  ? 

At  the  market  they  buy  eight  new  spades  j  how  many  must 
each  of  them  carry  ? 

SECOND     STEP. 

NOTATION. 

Hitherto  the  several  numbers  have  been  represented  to  the  eye 
solely  by  objects  or  strokes ;  the  expression  of  the  higher  numbers 
by  these  means  will  already  have  become  inconvenient.  The 
pupil  must  now  be  introduced  to  the  more  simple  and  practical 
method  afforded  by  the  Arabic*  numerals. 

Object. — 1.  To  make  evident  the  need  of  some  brief  and 
ready  method  of  expressing  the  value  of  numbers  in  writing ;  to 
teach  the  form  and  power  ot  the  ten  numeric  signs,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5, 
6,  7,  8,  9,  0. 

2.  To  make  the  children  familiar  with  the  meaning  of  the 
words  more  and  less^  and  with  the  algebraic  signs  +  and  — ,  as 

*  They  are,  in  fact,  Indian  in  their  origin,  though  we  have  received  them 
through  the  Arabians. 

t  If  the  children  are  advanced,  they  may  be  also  taught  that  the  Latin  words 
plus,  for  more,  and  minus,  for  less,  are  often  used,  particularly  in  books  of 
Arithmetic. 

8 


170  NUMBER. SECOND   STEP. 

respectively  expressive  of  the  operations  of  addition  and  subtrac- 
tion ;  and  also  with  the  sign  =  as  expressive  of  equality  or  result. 

Plan. — This,  as  it  regards  carrying  out  the  first  object,  will  be 
gathered  from  the  following  suggestions  to  the  teacher : 

1.  In  order  to  illustrate  the  need  for  the  use  of  figures  in  ex- 
pressing to  the  eye  the  value  of  numbers,  let  the  children  suppose 
a  case  in  which  it  is  required  to  state  some  high  number  in  writ- 
ing ;  as,  for  instance,  the  age  of  an  old  man.  They  will  at  once 
see  that  the  doing  this  by  means  of  strokes  would  occupy  so  much 
time  and  space  as  to  be  most  inconvenient,  and  that  to  avoid  this 
must  be  most  desirable.  Various  illustrations  will  suggest  them- 
selves. 

When  the  perception  of  the  want  has  been  awakened,  the 
teacher  may  communicate  the  numeric  value  of  the  several  nume- 
ral characters  by  means  of  groups  of  strokes,  each  group  having 
written  over  it  the  figure  which  has  been  adopted  as  its  unvarying 
symbol ;  thus : 

123  4 

I  II  I    I    I  I    I    I    I 

This  should  be  carried  as  far  as  the  number  nine. 

"When  these  groups  of  strokes  and  their  representative  figures 
have  been  thoroughly  scrutinized,  the  children  should  be  led  on  to 
apply  them  for  themselves.  The  teacher  may  write  any  one  of 
the  figures  on  the  slate,  and  require  a  child  to  place  against  it  the 
number  of  strokes  or  units  it  represents,  while  the  other  children 
of  the  class  determine  whether  this  is  correctly  done.  To  vary 
the  exercise,  the  teacher  may  make  any  definite  number  of  strokes, 
not  exceeding  nine,  upon  the  slate,  and  require  the  children  to  apply 
the  right  numeric  sign  ;  or,  for  variety,  the  teacher  may  present  a 
definite  number  of  objects,  requiring  the  children  to  express  the 
number,  both  by  the  utterance  of  the  name  of  the  number,  and  by 
the  formation  of  the  corresponding  figure  on  the  slate.  They 
ought  to  acquire  familiarity  with  the  nine  numerals  in  two  lessons.* 

*  It  would  be  a  useful  lesson  for  the  children  themselves  to  make  the  figures, 
indicating  opposite  to  each  of  them,  by  the  proper  number  of  strokes,  the  num- 
ber of  units  it  expresses. 


NUMBER. SECOND    STEP.  171 

2.  The  children,  having  acquired  the  knowledge  of  nine  figures 
by  which  the  nine  lowest  numbers  are  briefly  expressed  for  con- 
venience of  calculation,  may  now  be  led  to  see  that  the  word  two 
and  the  sign  2,  the  word  three  and  the  sign  3,  &c.,  have  an  un- 
changeable, or  absolute  value,  which  may  be  used  to  qualify  any 
objects  whatever ;    so  that  we  may  say,  two  elephants  or  three 
elephants,  two  flies  or  three  flies,  two  ones  or  three  ones ;  the 
number  being  always  the  same  number,  however  different  the 
objects  to  which  it  is  applied. 

3.  The  teacher  may  now  introduce  the  words  more  and  less, 
and  the  algebraic  signs  of  addition,  subtraction,  and  equality  or 
result.     First,  let  the  teacher  write  a  column  of  numbers  to  be 
added,  on  the  school  slate.     This  may  be  done  in  different  modes  : 


1  and  1  are  2 

2  and  1  are  3 

3  and  1  are  4 

&c. 


1  more  1  are  2 

2  more  1  are  3 

3  more  1  are  4 

&c. 


Then  let  the  teacher  write  on  the  slate  the  same  numbers  as  be- 
fore, connecting  them  by  the  signs  of  addition  and  equality,  as  in 
the  margin ;  or  the  words  may  be  erased,  and  the 
signs  substituted.     The  sign  +  should  not  be  made     1  +  1=2 
in  a  careless  manner,  and  attention  should  be  called     2  +  1=3 
to  the  fact  that  the  one  line  is  exactly  vertical,  the     3  +  1  =  4 
other   exactly  horizontal,  in    order  that   this    sign     4  +  1=5 
may  be  the  better  distinguished  when  that  which 
indicates  multiplication  is  hereafter  presented. 

The  process  is  the  same  with  the  sign  of  subtraction,  columns 
of  some  length  being  first  constructed,  with  the  use  of  words, 
afterward  exhibiting  the  superior  simplicity  and  utility  of  the 
signs : 


2  less  1    is  1 

3  less  1  are  2 

4  less  1  are  3 

5  less  1  are  4 


2  —  1  =  1 

3  —  1=2 

4  —  1=3 

5  —  1=4 


172  NUMBER. SECOND  STEP. 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NUMBERS  ELEVEN  TO  ONE  HUNDRED, 
AND  THE  EXTENSION  OF  NOTATION. 

Object. — This  Step  is  but  an  extension  to  higher  numbers  of 
the  principles  already  laid  down,  and  the  extension  of  the  power 
of  numeric  notation  to  the  expression  of  such  numbers. 

To  explain  the  nature  of  the  local  value  of  figures,  as  distin- 
guished from  their  absolute  value. 

Plan. — I.  Develop  the  perception  of  the  numbers  eleven  to 
one  hundred,  on  the  plan  proposed  in  the  development  of  the 
numbers  one  to  nine,  tangible  or  visible  objects  being  still  used 
with  the  lower  numbers.  The  number  ten  should  be  much  em- 
ployed as  a  means  of  classification,  and  as  a  help  both  to  the  eye 
and  to  the  mind  in  the  comprehension  of  the  higher  numbers. 

Teach  the  children  to  enumerate  simply  by  combinations  of 
tens  and  units  before  using  the  common  contractions ;  for  exam- 
ple, saying  after  10,  one  ten  and  one,  one  ten  and  two,  &c.,  up  to 
one  ten  and  nine ;  then  two  tens  and  one,  two  tens  and  two,  &c., 
up  to  nine  tens  and  nine  ;  thus  learning  the  meaning  of  the  terms 
fourteen,  twenty -one,  and  being  enabled  to  see  more  clearly  the  plan 
of  numbering  by  ten,  and  that  the  highest  number  is  merely  a 
repetition  of  ten  units. 

II.  Communicate  the  names  of  each  of  these  numbers,  and 
test  the  children's  attainments  as  already  recommended  and  illus- 
trated,  concluding  with  simple  ascending  and    descending   enu- 
meration. 

III.  Illustrate  the  powers  and  names  of  these  numbers  when 
used  as  ordinals. 

IY.  "When  a  clear  perception  of  such  numbers  has  been  at- 
tained, the  children  may  be  introduced  to  the  effort  of  expressing 
them  in  numerals.  To  do  this,  they  must  be  led  to  see  the  neces- 
sity for  changing  the  numerals  in  the  second,  or  tens'  place  of 
figures  from  1  and  2,  as  hitherto  used  in  the  numbers  11,  12,  and 
in  21,  22,  &c. ;  to  3,  in  31,  32,  33,  &c. ;  to  4,  in  41,  42,  43,  &c., 
up  to  99. 

This  subject  is  important,  not  at  this  stage  of  instruction  only, 
but  throughout  the  whole  range  of  number.  It  introduces  the 
mind  to  the  perception  of  a  new  feature  in  numerical  notation — 


NUMBER. — SECOND    STEP.  173 

that  of  the  local  value  of  the  ten  figures  (inclusive  of  0,  which 
indicates  the  absence  of  number) ;  for  it  is  to  these  figures  or 
signs  alone,  and  not  to  the  names  of  numbers,  that  this  property 
of  local  value  belongs. 

In  the  first  place,  lead  the  children  to  feel  the  need  of  some 
brief  mode  of  expressing  the  value  of  numbers  more  than  9. 

To  do  this,  the  teacher  may  once  more  form  groups  of  strokes 
on  the  slate,  from  one  to  ten,  requiring  a  child  to  place  over  each 
stroke  or  group  of  strokes  its  representative  numeral.  This  will 
be  easy  as  far  as  9.  When  the  child  has  reached  the  group  con- 
taining ten  strokes,  and  is  at  a  loss  for  a  numeral  by  which  to  ex- 
press it,  the  teacher  may  communicate  the  fact  that  only  nine 
numeral  characters  (exclusive  of  0)  have  been  invented  for  the 
written  expression  of  all  numbers,  how  large  soever  they  may  be. 

Having  reached  this  point,  the  mind  of  the  children  should  be 
led  to  think  out  this  fact  of  local  value.  With  a  view  to  this,  the 
teacher  may  draw  two  columns  on  the  school  slate, 
and  write  at  the  top  of  each  of  them  the  name  of 
some  familiar  object,  as  in  the  margin ;  telling  the 
children  to  call  the  column  on  the  right  the  first 
column,*  that  on  the  left  the  second.  Any  numeral, 
say  4,  may  then  be  written  in  the  first  column. 
What  does  it  mean  ?  It  means  four  of  boys.  What  would  it 
mean  if  written  in  the  second  column  ?  It  would  then  mean  four 
of  men.  Write  3  in  the  first  column,  8  in  the  second.  How  will 
you  read  these  figures?  Eight  of  men  and  three  of  boys. 
Transpose  them,  and  how  will  you  read  them  now  ?  Three  of 
men  and  eight  of  boys.  Diversify  both  names  and  numbers  for 
further  exercise. 

Again,  draw  two  columns  on  the  slate,  and  at  the  top  of  the 
first  column,  write  "ones,"  at  the  top  of  the  second, 
"  tens,"  as  in  the  margin.  Place  the  numeral  1  in 
the  first  column.  What  does  it  mean  ?  It  means 
one  one,  or  one  unit.  Remove  it  to  the  next 
column.  What  does  it  mean  now  ?  Now  it  means 
one  ten.  Write  the  same  numeral  in  both  column^. 

*  This  order  is  important  as  a  right  beginning,  the  "  place  of  figures"  being 
always  enumerated  from  right  to  left. 


174:  NUMBER. THIKD    STEP. 

What  is  it  now  ?  Now  it  is  one  ten  and  one  one.  Have  you 
learnt  any  name  for  one  ten  and  one  one,  or  for  ten  more  one  ? 
Yes ;  ten  more  one  is  called  "Eleven"  The  teacher  may  then 
successively  change  the  figure  in  the  first  column  to  two.  What 
is  it  now  ?  One  ten  and  two.  Its  name  ?  Twelve.  To  three. 
What  is  it  now  ?  One  ten  and  three.  Its  name  ?  Thirteen. 
And  so  on  to  nine.  What  is  it  now  ?  One  ten  and  nine.  Its 
name  ?  Nineteen. 

The   teacher   may  now   rub    out   the  vertical   lines,   leaving 
the  words  "tens"  and  "ones"  still  standing  as  be- 
fore, with  the  figures  under  them,  and  may  ask  if      TENS.   ONES. 
the  value  of  the  figures  is  altered  at  all  by  remov- 
ing the  lines  ?      Not  at  all.     Why  ?     The  ivords         j        ^ 
still  remain  to  tell  the  respective  value  of  the  figures 
to  be  one  ten  and  nine  ones,  or  nine  and  ten,   or 
nineteen.     The  words  may  now  be  removed  also,  and  the  teacher 
may  ask  if  the  children  can  themselves  remember  the  respective 
Values  of  the  figures  ?     Yes  ;  their  relative  position  indicates  this : 
that  figure  in  the  first  place  of  figures  means  nine  units,  or  ones ; 
that  in  the  second  place  of  figures  means  one  ten,  the  whole  sum 
being  one  ten  and  nine  ones,  or  nineteen. 

The  children  may  now  be  told  that  whenever  two  figures  stand 
side  by  side  thus,  that  they  always  bear  this  relation  to  each  other, 
and  they  may  be  led  to  see  that  the  value  of  a  figure  is  increased 
tenfold  by  being  moved  one  place  to  the  left. 

The  children  should  now  be  exercised  in  reading  and  putting 
down  numbers  to  ninety -nine. 


THIRD    STEP. 

Exercises  with  Numbers,  the  Sum  or  Product  of  which  does  not 
exceed  100. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Since  the  decimal  system  in  its  principal  features,  together 
with  its  notation,  has  to  some  extent  been  presented  to  the  chil- 


NUMBER. — THIRD   STEP.  175 

dren  in  the  preceding  chapters,  it  becomes  the  duty  of  the  teacher 
to  show  the  children  its  advantages,  even  in  mental  arithmetic, 
and  not  to  leave  it  entirely  to  chance,  or  to  an  appeal  to  memory 
alone  ;  remembering  that  in  every  school  a  large  proportion  of  the 
children  do  not  belong  to  that  privileged  class  who  seize  every- 
thing by  the  force  of  native  talent,  or  of  genius.  The  teacher 
may  make  use  of  the  hints  given  in  these  introductory  remarks 
whenever  the  opportunity,  or  rather  the  necessity,  presents  itself. 
For  instance,  if  there  should  be  some  difficulty  in  the  addition  of 
26  +  3,  56  +  3,  &c.,  the  teacher  has  but  to  ask  what  6  +  3 
would  make,  showing  that  the  above  questions  are  related,  or 
rather  based  upon  this  fact,  and  that,  whilst  the  sum  of  the  units 
is  9  in  every  one  of  these  examples,  the  number  of  tens  remains 
unchanged. 

The  same  advantage  is  taken,  when  the  subtraction  of  such 
examples  as  37  —  4,  57  —  4,  97  —  4,  &c.,  is  to  be  performed, 
since  they  are  all  based  upon  the  fact  that  7  —  4  leaves  3,  and 
that  the  number  of  tens  is  not  affected. 

In  such  examples  as  57  +  5,  67  +  5,  87  +  5,  the  number  of 
tens  becomes  affected — that  is,  increased  by  one  ten ;  but  as  the 
sum  of  the  units  7  +  5  make  12,  it  is  easy  to  perceive  that  the 
number  of  units  in  the  answer  to  any  of  the  above  questions  must 
be  2,  whilst  the  number  of  tens  becomes  increased  by  one. 

A  little  more  thought  is  required  in  solving  such  questions  as 
72  —  5,  &c.,  where  the  number  of  units  to  be  subtracted  exceeds 
the  number  of  units  in  the  number  from  which  they  are  to  be 
taken.  In  such  a  case,  the  teacher  would  do  well  to  ask,  into 
what  parts  they  could  divide  5  ?  Answer,  1  +  4,  2  +  3.  Ask 
them  further,  whether  to  take  1  +  4,  or  2  +  3  away,  would  be 
the  same  as  taking  away  5  ?  Then  let  them  take  off  2,  leaving 
70,  and  then  3  from  70,  leaving  67  for  the  answer.  Ask,  then, 
whether  it  would  not  have  been  as  convenient  to  have  taken  first 
one  away,  and  then  4  afterward.  Why  not  ?  What  arrange- 
ment would  they  make  in  taking  away  7  from  54  ?  What  would 
be  the  most  convenient  division  of  7  in  this  example  ? 

Another  advantage  presented  by  the  decimal  system,  and 
often  used  for  the  rapid  solution  of  questions,  is  found  in  the  addi- 


176  NUMBER. THIRD    STEP. 

tion  and  subtraction  of  numbers  near  ten '  as,  for  instance,  of  8 
and  9.  To'see  this  fully,  the  teacher  may  ask  them  to  add  10  to 
any  number  she  gives,  which  is  the  operation  of  a  moment.  She 
may  then  ask  how  much  less  9  is  than  10?  If  they  would  add  1 0 
to  any  number,  instead  of  9,  whether  the  result  would  not  be  too 
great  ?  By  how  much  ?  What  must  be  done,  to  conform  to  the 
question  ? 

Similar  questions  may  be  asked  in  regard  to  the  subtraction 
of  9  or  8,  and  it  will  be  found  that  the  common  sense  of  the  chil- 
dren will  never  be  slow  to  seize  this  legitimate  advantage,  which 
the  more  talented  children  will  have  found  out  for  themselves. 
An  intelligent  teacher,  who  acts  in  this  spirit,  need  not  be  afraid 
of  having  many  slow  or  stupid  children  in  the  class. 

Addition  and  Subtraction  of  a  Number  not  exceeding  10  succes- 
sively. 

"We  consider  it  of  the  utmost  importance,  that  pupils  should 
not  merely  receive  a  few  isolated  questions  of  an  exercise,  but 
should  be  led  to  answer  questions  arranged  in  a  series  where  no 
link  has  been  omitted.  There  is,  however,  a  danger,  that  many 
teachers  may  commit  mistakes  in  the  presentation  of  such  a  series, 
which  will  render  it  useless.  For  instance,  let  us  suppose  that  a 
class  is  required  to  answer  the  following  questions : — What  does 
14-2  make  ?  2  +  2?  3  +  2?  4  +  2?  5  +  2?  6  +  2?  The 
respective  answers  to  these  questions  are,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  &c. 
Now  it  is  evident  that  every  child,  in  giving  his  answers,  has  but 
to  add  one  to  the  answer  given  by  his  predecessor,  which  can  be 
done  without  thought,  mechanically ;  since,  as  far  as  the  work  is 
concerned,  it  requires  but  the  addition  of  one.  To  avoid  this  mis- 
take, the  questions  given  below  have  been  arranged  upon  a  differ- 
ent plan. 

First  Series  of  Addition. — Add  2  to  1,  and  to  the  successive 
results.  The  teacher  asks  :  1  +  2,  how  many  ?  3  +  2?  5  +  2? 
7  +  2?  9  +  2?  11+2?  13  +  2?  15  +  2?  17  +  2? 

To  what  extent  these  exercises  are  to  be  carried,  depends  on 
the  discretion  of  the  teacher,  and  on  the  number  of  the  scholars, 


OF  THE 
NUMBER. THIRD    6TEP,  fflj  VT  T  'W't'l  T}  g  T  I 

since  every  one  of  them  should  take  a  part  in  the  f^«g4(Mifro£ v£r*.<n  ^S^ 
series.     As  a  general  thing,  it  is  sufficient  to  add  tne^fcjggdS:^ 
about  nine  times. 

First  Series  of  Subtraction. — Subtract  2  from  19,  and  from 
successive  remainders.  19  —  2?  17  —  2?  15  —  2?  13  —  2? 

11  —  2?     9  —  2]     7  —  2?     5  —  2?     3  —  2? 

REMARK. — After  constructing  a  series,  the  teacher  must  not 
forget  to 'ask  questions  promiscuously. 

Second  Series  of  Addition. — Add  2  to  2,  and  to  successive 
results.  2  +  2?  4  +  2?  6+2?  8  +  2?  10  +  2?  12  +  2? 
14  +  2?  16  +  2?  18 +.2? 

Second  Series  of  Subtraction. — Subtract  2  from  20,  and  from 
successive  remainders.  20  —  2?  18  —  2?  16  —  2?  14  —  2? 

12  —  2?     10  —  2?     8  —  2?     6  —  2?     4  —  2?     2  —  2? 

In  order  to  allow  the  teacher  to  superintend  and  conduct  sev- 
eral classes  at  the  same  time,  she  may  call  upon  those  who  have 
gone  through  one  or  more  of  the  preceding  exercises,  to  commit 
them  to  writing  on  their  slates,  giving  them  the  signs  of  +  for 
addition,  —  for  subtraction,  =  for  equality. 

The  work,  as  seen  on  their  slates,  would  then  stand  thus : 


1  +  2=  3 

19  —  2  =  17 

2  +  2=4 

20  —  2  =  18 

3  +  2  =  5 

17  —  2  =  15 

4  +  2=  6 

18  —  2  =  16 

5  +  2  =  7 

15  —  2  =  13 

6  +  2=8 

16  —  2  =  14 

7  +  2=  9 

13  —  2  =  11 

8  +  2  =  10 

14  —  2  =  12 

9  +  2  =  11 

11  —  2=  9 

10  +  2  =  12 

12  —  2  =  10 

&c. 

&c. 

&c. 

&c. 

It  is  of  little  consequence  whether  the  series  of  addition  are 
presented  in  close  succession,  or  alternate  with  subtraction.  We 
follow  the  former  method  in  presenting  the  series,  which  can  be 
made  in  the  addition  and  subtraction  of  3. 

First  Series. — Addition  of  3  to  1,  and  its  successive  results. 
1  +  3?  4  +  3?  7  +  3?  LO  +  3?  13  +  3?  &c,  to  25  +  3 ? 

Second  Series. — Addition  of   3   to  2,   &c.      2  +  3  ?     5  +  3  ? 

8  +  3?     11+3?     14  +  3?     17  +  3?    &c.,  to  26  +  3? 

Third  Series.— Addition  of  3   to   3,    &c.      3  +  3  ?     6  +  3  ? 

9  +  3?     12  +  3?     15  +  3?     18  +  3?   &c.,  to  27  +  3? 


178  NUMBER. THIRD   STEP. 

SUBTRACTION, 

First  Series. — Subtraction  of  3  from  28,  and  from  successive 
remainders.  28  —  3?  25  —  3?  22  —  3?  19  —  3?  &c. 

Second  Series. — Subtraction    of   3    from    29,    &c.  .    29  —  3? 

26  —  3?     23  —  3?     20  —  3?    &c. 

Third    Series. — Subtraction    of   3    from    30,    &c.      30  —  3? 

27  —  3?     24  —  3?     21  —  3?     18  —  3?   &c. 

MISCELLANEOUS    QUESTIONS. 

28  +  3?     17  +  3?     22  +  3? 
31_3?     16  —  3?     25  —  3? 
16  +  2  +  3  +  2  +  1  +  3? 
31  —  3  —  2  —  1  —  2? 
15  +  2  —  3  +  1  —  2  +  3? 

The  above  merely  indicate  the  kind  of  questions  that  should 
be  put  to  the  children  after  having  gone  through  with  the  several 
series.  Many  similar  examples  should  be  given  by  the  teacher. 

The  addition  and  subtraction  of  4  presents  4  series  for  each : 

First  Series.— I  +  4?  5+4?  9  +  4?  &c.,  to  33  +  4  ? 

Second    "          2  +  4?  6  +  4?  10  +  4?  "       34  +  4? 

Third     "          3  +  4?  7  +  4?  11+4?  "       35  +  4? 

Fourth    "          4  +  4?  8  +  4?  12  +  4?  "       36  +  4? 

SUBTRACTION. 

First  Series.— 37  —  4?  33  —  4?  29  —  4?  &c. 

Second     u         38  —  4?  34  —  4?  30  —  4?  " 

Third      "         39  —  4?  35  —  4?  31—4?  « 

Fourth     "         40  —  4?  36  —  4?  32  —  4?  " 

Similar  tables  should  be  made  out  with  5,  6,  7,  8,  and  9.  If 
the  teacher  does  not  deem  it  necessary  to  include  all  the  series  in 
each  table,  the  first  and  last  may  Ke  taken,  and  the  intermediate 
series  omitted ;  as, 

First  Series. — 1  +  5?     6  +  5?     11  +  5?     16  +  5?    &c.,  up  to 
41  +  5? 


NUMBER. THIRD    STEP.  179 

Fifth  Series.— 5  +  5?     10  +  5?     15  +  5?     20  +  5?  &c.,  up  to 
ten  additions. 

The  Second,  Third,  and  Fourth  Series  being  8omitted.  If  there  is 
sufficient  time,  however,  it  is  better  to  include  all.  It  is  quite  im- 
portant that  the  last  series  with  each  number,  in  which  the  num- 
ber itself  is  repeated,  should  always  be  included,  as  this  has  an 
important  bearing  on  multiplication. 

MULTIPLICATION. 

There  are  people  who  do  not  consider  either  Multiplication  or 
Division  as  a  distinct  operation,  or  as  one  involving  a  new  prin- 
ciple, since,  philosophically  considered,  these  two  operations  of 
arithmetic  can  but  do  one  of  two  things — either  increase  or  dimin- 
ish— which  was  done  equally  by  the  two  processes  already  de- 
scribed. Moreover,  multiplication,  as  everybody  knows,  is  un- 
doubtedly the  result  of  the  addition  of  equal  numbers.  "When 
these  results  have  been  committed  to  memory,  so  that  they  can  be 
immediately  reproduced,  we  give  to  this  act  the  name  of  mul- 
tiplication. All  being  agreed  that  the  instantaneous  production 
of  the  facts  of  multiplication  are  of  the  utmost  importance,  in  the 
arithmetical  transactions  of  practical  life,  the  question  remains 
whether  they  have  simply  to  be  committed  to  memory,  without 
thought  or  -reflection,  or  whether  they  ought  to  be  found  or  pro- 
duced by  the  efforts  of  the  pupils  themselves.  The  first  view  led 
to  the  mechanical  learning  by  rote  of  the  so-called  table  of  multi- 
plication ;  the  second  view  arose  from  the  conviction,  that  it  is 
unworthy  of  the  most  logical  of  all  sciences,  to  give  distinct  and 
easily  ascertained  truths  merely  as  a  matter  of  belief,  for  parrot-like 
repetition,  and  that  memory  itself  has  no  stronger  ally  than  the 
full  conception  and  understanding  of  a  fact.  The  plan  of  the  fol- 
lowing exercises,  as  will  be  seen,  advocates  the  latter  of  these 
views. 

In  the  original  treatise,  which  contains  Pestalozzi's  plan  of  teach- 
ing arithmetic,  was  seen  the  so-called  table  of  "  units,"  consisting 
of  groups  of  strokes,  intended,  by  their  combination  and  repe- 
tition, to  establish  the  facts  of  multiplication.  Since,  however, 


180  NUMBER. — THIRD   STEP. 

the  counting  by  units  (for  which  the  lines  are  designed)  is  alto- 
gether discarded  at  the  step  at  which  the  pupils  are  supposed  to 
be,  it  is  proposed  to  use  a  less  cumbersome  method  of  illustration, 
by  making  use  of  the  figures  representing  numbers,  and  by  arrang- 
ing them  thus : 

Table  of  Addition  to  Illustrate  Multiplication. 

1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1 
2  +  2a+  2b+  2C+  2  +  2  +  2 +.2  +  2+12 
3+3+3+3+3+3+3+3+3+3 
4+4+4+4+4+4+4+4+4+4 
'  .  5  +  5  +  5  +  5_|_5  +  5  +  5  +  5  +  5  +  5 
6+6+6+6+6+6+6+6+6+6 
7+7+7+7+7+7+7+7+7+7 
8+8+8+8+8+8+8+8+8+8 
9+9+9+9+9+9+9+9+9+9 

REMAEK. — Each  number,  as  will  be  seen,  is  represented  10 
times.  The  table  of  ones  is  the  first,  although  it  reproduces  but 
the  results  of  counting ;  as,  1  time  1  =  1  ;  2  times  1  =  2.  The 
table  of  tens  is  omitted,  since  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  already 
treated  in  establishing  the  laws  of  numeration  and  notation  up  to 
100.  The  tables  of  11  and  12  are  here  omitted,  as  involving 
compound  numbers,  although  they  may  be  profitably  learnt  by 
rote  on  some  other  occasion. 

FIRST  EXERCISE. — Multiplication  of  Twos. — The  first  opera- 
tion to  be  performed  on  this  table  is  obviously  this,  to  have  the 
sums  produced  by  the  addition  of  twos,  threes,  fours,  &c.,  distinctly1 
expressed.  The  power  to  do  this  has  already  been  established  in 
the  previous  exercises ;  for  instance,  the  teacher  asking,  How 
many  are  2  +  2  ?  2  +.2  +  2  ?  2  +  2  +  2  +  2?  &c.,  will  un- 
doubtedly obtain  the  correct  answer.  It  becomes  necessary,  how- 
ever, at  this  step,  to  obtain  the  answers  quiclcly,  without  delay  or 
hesitation.  For  this  purpose,  the  teacher  may  point  to  the  right 
of  a  number  (for  instance  to  a),  and  ask,  What  is  the  sum  of  units 
to  the  left  of  my  pointer  ?  Ans.  4.  And  now  ?  (pointing  to  &.) 
Ans.  6.  And  now?  (at  c.)  Ans.  8.  She  then  moves  the 


NUMBER. THIKD    STEP.  181 

pointer  to  the  numbers  farther  to  the  right,  always  requiring  the 
children  to  tell  the  number  of  units. 

This  is  done  forward  and  backward  (in  which  case  it  becomes 
subtraction),  with  always  increasing  rapidity,  till  the  children,  or 
at  least  the  greater  part  of  them,  give  their  answers  almost  in- 
stantaneously. When  this  is  accomplished,  the  teacher  may  go 
back  to  the  first  method  of  questioning,  and  ask,  without  point- 
ing to  the  table,  Can  you  tell  me  once  more  how  many  units 
2  +  2  +  2  +  2  +  2  make  ?  Ans.  10.  Then  say,  "  Two  and 
two  and  two  and  two  and  two  are  ten."  Is  there  not  a  shorter 
way  to  express  this  same  fact  ?  How  many  twos  did  I  give  ? 
Five  twos.  And  how  many  units  do  they  contain  ?  Ten.  Then 
say,  "  Five  twos  are  ten  units,  or  five  times  two  are  ten." 

The  teacher  then  tells  them,  that  the  taking  of  a  number  a 
certain  number  of  times,  and  expressing  the  result  in  units,  is 
called  multiplication ;  and  the  act  of  doing  it,  to  multiply.  She 
then  requires  a  child  to  take  two  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  ten  times, 
in  the  way  already  indicated  :  "  One  time  two  is  two ;  two  times 
two  are  four,"  &c.  She  then  asks  others,  and  finally  bids  the  class 
repeat  it  in  concert.  She  then  tells  them  to  write  the  facts  they 
have  just  expressed,  which  can  be  done  thus  : 


1  times  2=2 

2  "     2  =    4 

3  "     2=6 

4  «     2  =    8 

5  "     2  =  10 


6  times  2  =  12 

7  m  "     2  =  14 

8  *   "     2  =  16 

9  "     2  =  18 
10      "     2  =  20 


Or,  by  giving  them  the  sign  of  multiplication,  together  with  its 
meaning,  the  same  facts  would  be  rendered  thus : 


2X1  = 
2X2  = 
2X3  = 


2X4=8 
2  X  5  =  10 
2  X  6  =  12,  &c. 


NOTE  TO  THE  TEACHER. — It  is  generally  the  custom  to  read 
this  table  in  a  reversed  order,  and  to  call  the  above  facts,  2  times 
2  =  4;  2  times  3  =  6;  2  times  4  =  8;  but  this  cannot  be  de- 
fended on  any  philosophical  principle.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  not 


182  NUMBER. THLRD    STEP. 

what  the  children  have  learned ;  for  in  practising,  for  instance, 
the  table  of  twos,  they  have  not  learned  that  twice  three  are  six, 
but  that  three  times  two  are  six.  Secondly,  it  gives  a  wrong  view 
about  the  meaning  of  the  sign  of  multiplication,  X,  which  cannot 
be  translated  by  the  word  "  times,"  but  signifies  "  multiplied  by." 
The  expression  2X3  means,  therefore,  2  multiplied  by  3  ;  or,  in 
other  words,  2  taken  3  times,  which  is  equivalent  to  3  times  2. 

Those  who  wish  to  test  the  accuracy  of  the  children's  concep- 
tion, in  any  school  where  arithmetic  is  taught  on  sound  principles, 
have  but  to  ask  whether  they  think  3  times  4  and  4  times  3  are 
exactly  alike,  and  to  illustrate  each  fact  by  means  of  lines  or 
objects.  They  will  probably  be  told,  that  whilst  the  product  or 
result  in  both  questions  is  the  same,  the  arrangement  or  grouping 
of  the  objects  is  different. 

After  the  children  have  written  the  table  of  twos,  they  should 
proceed  in  the  same  way  with  the  tables  of  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  and 
commit  them  to  memory. 

MISCELLANEOUS    QUESTIONS    ON    MULTIPLICATION. 

7X5?  4X8?  9X7?  7x7? 
3X2  +  7  +  9?  7X4  +  5  +  8  +  3? 
9X9  —  4  —  8  —  3?  7X8  —  5  —  3  —  9? 
8x6  +  4  +  7  —  8  —  3  +  6? 

7X2  +  3X2?  4X3  +  5X3?  7X4  +  2X4  +  8 
+  6  —  7  ?  &c. 

The  teacher  should  give  many  more  examples  of  this  character. 

DIVISION. 

INTRODUCTION. — It  has  already  been  hinted,  that  Division  is 
an  operation  which  implies  Subtraction.  This  can  be  shown  in 
the  following  manner  :  Let  us  take  the  example,  12-4-3,  which 
asks  how  many  times  3  is  contained  in  12  ?  Now  if  we  ascer- 
tain how  many  times  3  can  be  subtracted  from  12,  the  question  is 
solved.  But  12  —  3  —  3  —  3  —  3  =  0.  Thus  we  see,  that  3 
could  be  subtracted  4  times  from  12 ;  consequently  3  is  four  times 
contained  in  12,  or  12  -f-  3  =  4. 


NUMBER. THIRD    STEP.  183 

It  is  obvious,  however,  that  at  the  present  step  it  is  easier  and 
shorter  to  consider  Division  the  inverse  operation  of  Multiplication, 
or  as  one  which  analyzes  the  result  of  multiplication  into  its  fac- 
tors. Thus,  since  3,  four  times  taken,  makes  12,  it  is  evident 
that  3  is,  for  this  reason,  contained  in  12  four  times. 

Division  of  a  Number  by  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  provided  the  Num- 
ber does  not  exceed  Ten  Times  its  Divisor. 

Division  by  2. — Who  can  tell  how  many  times  2  is  contained 
in  12?  Ans.  Six  times.  Why?  Because  6  times  2  =  12. 
This  answer,  as  well  as  the  argument,  .may  be  expected  to  be 
given  at  once  by  many  of  the  class.  In  order,  however,  to  bring 
the  matter  within  the  comprehension  of  even  the  dullest  scholar,  the 
teacher  may  draw  12  strokes  on  the  blackboard,  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | , 
and  bid  a  child  to  show  how  it  might  be  proved  that  2  (or  a 
group  of  two  strokes)  is  contained  six  times  in  12. 

The  practical  analysis  of  this  question  is  found  in  the  adjoined 

diagram : 

123456 

nnnnnn 

She  may  also  ask,  how  the  same  fact  can  be  shown  on  the  multi- 
plication table,  on  the  series  representing  twos  : 


2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2 


3 


The  child  has  first  to  point  out  the  sum  of  12  units  (at  the  right 
end  of  the  arc),  and  then  count  the  number  of  twos  situated  under 
the  whole  arc.  One  or  two  examples  of  this  kind  will  probably 
establish  the  facts  of  division,  in  so  far  as  they  are  related  to  the 
table  of  multiplication. 

The  further  questions  must,  of  course,  be  put  in  a  systematic 
and  progressive  manner,  taking  care  that  all  the  units  below  10 
are  brought  into  play  as  divisors  of  a  given  number. 

The  second  and  third  series  of  additions  in  the  preceding  table, 
for  illustrating  multiplication,  contain  the  answers  to  the  follow- 
ing questions : 


184:  NTJMBE5. THIRD    STEP. 

• 

How  many  times  is  2  contained  in  2,  4,  6,  8,  10,  12,  14,  16, 
18,20?  "Why? 

How  many  times  is  3  contained  in  3,  6,  9,  12,  15,  18,  21,  24, 
27,  30?  "Why?  &c.,  &c.,  &c. 

If  the  teacher  finds  it  necessary  to  make  the  children  write 
out  the  table  of  division,  she  may  give  them  the  sign  of  division, 
-T-,  and  tell  them  that  12  -4-  4  is  generally  expressed  as  12  divided 
ly±. 

MISCELLANEOUS    QUESTIONS. 

18 -=-2?     27  -f-  3?     16-5-4?   &c. 

To  21  -;-  3  add  7  +  9  +  4  ?     To  56  -*•  7  add  4  +  2  +  5  ? 

To  64  +  8  add  3  +  5  —  9  —  7  ? 

(27  -f-  3)  9  ?  &c.     This  must  be  read,  27^3  multiplied  by  9. 

To  '(18-7-9)  2  add  7  +  9  —  4  —  8?   &c. 

Division  of  Numbers  leaving  a  Remainder. 

How  many  times  is  2  contained  in  15  ?  Ans.  7  times  and  1 
over.  "Why?  Show  it  by  lines.  00170011111.  The 
teacher  now  may  tell  the  scholars,  that  in  future  examples  of  this 
kind  they  would  do  well  to  arrange  the  given  number  into  two 
unequal  parts,  the  first  or  larger  one  containing  a  number  a  cer- 
tain number  of  times,  and  the  latter  forming  a  remainder. 

In  this  operation  she  appeals  to  the  memory  of  the  children  in 
regard  to  the  products  of  the  table  of  multiplication.  For  in- 
stance, in  the  question  29  -f-  3,  she  may  ask  whether  they  think 
that  3  is  contained  in  29  a  certain  number  of  times  without  a  re- 
mainder ?  Whether  this  is  the  case  with  28  ?  With  27  ?  Yes ; 
3  is  contained  in  27,  9  times.  Then  how  many  units  are  over,  to 
make  up  29  ?  Two  units.  Express  now  the  whole  question : 
29  -r-  3  =  7  and  2  remaining. 

All  the  following  examples,  which  the  teacher  may  give  pro- 
miscuously, are  to  be  solved  in  a  similar  manner ;  for  instance, 
39 -f- 5? 

Solution :   39  -J-  5  =  7,  with  a  remainder  of  4. 


NUMBER. — THIRD    STEP.  185 

Some  Suggestions  on  the  Application  of  the  foregoing  Exercises  to 
so-called  Concrete*  Numbers. 

The  purpose  of  these  lessons  being  principally  to  develop  a 
clear  insight  of  numbers,  their  relations  and  properties,  and  the 
operations  performed  with  them,  the  subject  of  the'ir  application  does 
not  seem  to  belong  within  the  compass  of  this  book ;  and  the  less 
so,  as  the  examples  to  which  we  refer  may  be  found  in  every 
treatise  on  Arithmetic.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  not  be  inap- 
propriate, in  connection  with  the  principles  advocated  here,  to 
render  the  teacher,  to  some  extent,  even  independent  of  the  ex- 
amples supplied  by  a  book. 

In  regard  to  one  kind  of  examples  which  suggest  the  addi- 
tion, subtraction,  &c.,  of  given  objects,  some  of  them  of  com- 
mercial interest,  such  as  cents,  dollars,  pounds,  &c.,  it  need  not  be 
stated  how  easily  these  can  be  supplied  at  every  step ;  nor  should 
they  be  neglected,  since  they  form  an  absorbing  subject  of  consid- 
eration to  every  clerk,  accountant,  shopkeeper,  and  to  other  per- 
sons. As  mental  exercises,  they  must,  however,  be  limited  to  num- 
bers that  can  be  easily  remembered. 

There  is,  however,  one  set  of  questions  in  which  the  terms 
usually  adopted  in  the  operations  with  abstract  numbers,  such  as 
"adding/7  "subtracting,"  "multiplying,"  &c.,  are  discarded,  and 
other  verbs  supplied  which  imply  the  above  named  operations. 
For  instance,  there  is  addition  implied  in  the  actions  to  receive,  to 
find,  to  earn,  to  borrow,  to  gain,  to  collect,  &c.  On  the  contrary, 
the  idea  of  "  getting  less,"  or  of  subtraction,  suggests  itself  to  the 
mind  by  the  actions  of  "leaving,"  "losing,"  "throwing  away," 
"  dying,"  &c.  In  the  transactions  of  "buying,  we  have  an  increase 
of  articles,  and  a  diminution  of  money ;  whilst  in  those  of  selling 
the  case  is  reversed. 

Now  it  would  seem  no  difficult  task  to  any  thinking  teacher 
to  do  what  she  is  supposed  to  do  in  the  preparation  of  all  her  other 
lessons,  namely,  to  prepare  for  herself  some  examples  of  a  con- 
crete and  practical  character;  as,  for  instance,  "I  had  28  cents; 

*  We  protest  against  the  word  "  concrete,"  as  applied  to  numbers.    Objects 
must  be  concrete,  but  numbers  are  always  abstract. 


186  NUMBER. FOURTH  STEP. 

of  these  I  spent  6,  and  lost  2.  On  {lie  other  hand,  I  earned  12 
cents  one  day,  18  cents  the  other;  how  many  cents  have  I  now?  " 

In  regard  to  multiplication,  the  teacher's  examples  must  be 
applied  to  objects  which  present  some  uniform  repetition.  For  in- 
stance, in  the  example,  "  7  square  tables  have  how  many  legs  ?  "  we 
find  a  repetition  of  4  legs  in  each,  and  therefore  7  times  4  legs  in 
all.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  question,  What  is  the  price 
of  7  articles,  at  4  cents  each  ? 

In  regard  to  division,  the  first  practical  view  which  suggests 
itself  is  that  of  dividing  a  certain  number  of  objects  among  some 
persons,  or  arranging  them  within  some  spaces ;  as,  for  instance  : 
If  I  divide  20  apples  among  4  persons,  how  many  will  each 
receive  ?  If  28  chairs  are  equally  distributed  in  seven  rooms,  how 
many  are  there  in  each  room  ? 

In  these  examples  it  would  be  simply  absurd  to  say,  Divide  20 
apples  by  4  persons,  or  28  chairs  by  8  rooms.  This  is  another 
proof  that  the  operations  of  arithmetic  are  performed  mainly  with 
abstract  numbers,  since  the  substitution  of  pears,  cherries,  marbles, 
and  other  objects,  would  not  have  affected  the  numerical  operation. 

There  are  a  great  many  practical  examples  where  division  is 
not  suggested  by  name,  but  simply  by  the  circumstances  attending 
the  transaction.  For  instance,  "  I  bought  5  articles  with  35  cents  ; 
how  much  did  I  give  for  each  ?  " 


FOURTH   STEP. 

Addition,   Subtraction,  Multiplication,  and  Division,  extended  to 
Higher  Numbers.     Also  a  Short  Course  in  fractions. 

This  Step,  which  is  thoroughly  connected  with  the  preceding 
one,  is  often  neglected  in  common  arithmetical  works,  and  its  solu- 
tions merely  left  to  chance.  Although  at  this  step  the  visible 
illustrations  may  be  to  a  great  extent  discarded,  yet  it  becomes  the 
more  necessary  to  appeal  to  those  sound  principles  which  oblige 
the  pupil  to  give  to  number  a  real  value,  and  not,  as  is  sometimes 
the  case  in  cyphering,  a  mere  nominal  one. 

"Where  cyphering  begins  too  early,  the  child  will  often  operate 


NUMBER. FOURTH    STEP.  187 

in  a  mechanical  manner,  even  when  he  is  required  to  perform  a 
mental  example.  In  order  to  illustrate  this,  we  will  assume  that 
25  and  47  have  to  be  added.  A  child  taught  by  rules  will  proba- 
bly imagine  the  47  placed  under  the  25  ;  then  adding  7  and  5 
together,  he  will  probably  put  two  and  carry  one,  which  he  adds 
to  the  sum  of  the  two  figures  to  the  left,  4  and  2.  The  sum  he 
will  thus  obtain  he  calls  72.  Now  it  need  not  be  said  that  this 
method  is  very  cumbersome  for  mental  arithmetic,  and  becomes 
nearly  impracticable  when  applied  to  an  example  of  subtraction. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  child  taught  by  natural  principles  will  mark 
out  a  true  path  for  himself,  after  having  started  in  the  right  direc- 
tion. We  state  here  some  of  the  most  obvious  features  of  this 
Step: 

1.  In  performing  operations  of  mental  arithmetic  with  numbers 
composed  of  tens  and  units,  it  is  safer  to  consider  first  the  tens, 
and  then  the  units. 

2.  The  tens  have  to  be  treated  as  if  they  were  units,  as  far  as 
the  operations  are  concerned. 

3.  The  exercises  have  to  be  so  arranged,  that  each  one  ex- 
plains the  following. 

4.  -The  solutions  must  not  be  given  to  the  children,  but  drawn 
out  by  questions. 

ADDITION   AND    SUBTRACTION. 

EXERCISE  I. — Addition  of  Tens  to  Tens,  and  Subtraction  of  Tens 
from  Tens. 

Example  in  Addition :  How  many  are  20  +  20  ?  How 
many  are  2  and  2  ?  How  many  tens  do  2  tens  and  2  tens  make  ? 
How  many  units  ? 

The  solution  then  stands  as  follows :  2  and  2  are  4 ;  2  tens 
and  2  tens  are  4  tens,  or  40  ;  therefore  20  +  20  =  40. 

Example  in  Subtraction:  How  many  are  50  —  20?  How 
many  are  5  —  2  ?  5  tens  less  2  tens  are  how  many  tens  ?  How 
many  units  ? 

Solution  :  5  —  2  =  3;  5  tens  less  2  tens  leave  3  tens,  or  30  ; 
therefore  50  —  20  =  30. 


188  NUMBER. FOURTH  STEP. 

A  great  many  questions  of  this  kind  must  be  given,  and  their 
solutions  required. 

EXERCISE  II. — Addition  of  Tens  and  Units  to  Tens,  and  Subtrac- 
tion of  Tens  from  Tens  and  Units,  or  of  Tens  and  Units  from 
Tens. 
Example   in  Addition :    How   many   are    35  +  20  ?      How 

many  are  30  +  20  ?     And  5  more  ? 

Solution :  30  +  20  =  50;    50  +  5  =  55. 

Example  in  Subtraction  :  How  many  are  59  —  20  ?  "What  is 
50  —  20?  59  —  20?  Why  do  you  add  9  to  the  former  result ? 
Are  the  units  changed  in  this  example  ?  Are  the  tens  ? 

EEMARK. — The  child  will  see  at  once  that  the  diminution  only 
takes  place  in  the  tens,  and  that  the  units  are  left  unchanged. 
The  children  will  now  be  able  to  solve  similar  examples,  which 
should  be  abundantly  supplied  by  the  teacher. 

Example  in  Subtraction:  Plow  many  are  50  —  37?  How 
many  are  50  —  30  ?  20  —  7  ? 

Solution:    50  —  30  =  20;    20  —  7  =  13. 

EXERCISE  III. — Addition  of  Tens  and  Units  to  Tens  and  Units, 
and  Subtraction  of  Tens  and  Units  from  Tens  and  Units. 

Example  in  Addition  :  How  many  are  43  +  29  ?  43  +  20  ? 
63  +  9? 

Solution  :  43  +  20  =  63  ;    63  +  9  =  72. 

EEMARK. — If  some  of  the  children  should  make  the  solution 
thus  :  40  +  20  =  60  ;  9  +  3  =  12;  therefore  60  +  12  =  72,  it 
should  be  accepted,  although  the  former  method  will  be  more  ex- 
peditious. 

Example  in  Subtraction :  How  many  are  73  —  28?  73  —  20? 
53  —  8? 

Solution:  73  —  20  =  53;    53  —  8  =  45. 

The  teacher  must  use  her  own  judgment  as  to  the  number  of 
examples  that  should  be  given  under  each  exercise.  Before  pro- 


NUMBER. — FOURTH  STEP.  189 

ceeding  to  the  next  exercise,  the  children  should  be  able  readily 
to  solve  any  examples  given  them. 

MULTIPLICATION. 

The  exercises  in  this  step  comprise  examples  in  which  one  of 
the  factors  may  go  as  high  as  100,  whilst  the  other  must  at  pres- 
ent be  limited  to  numbers  not  exceeding  10. 

EXERCISE  I. — Multiplication  of  Tens  ly  Units. 

REMARK. — This  exercise  will  prove  extremely  easy,  but  not 
the  less  important.  Since,  however,  the  results  obtained  will  soon 
exceed  100,  and  will  reach  as  high  as  1,000,  it  will  be  necessary 
for  the  teacher  to  extend  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  notation  and 
numeration,  so  as  to  enable  him  to  write  down  correctly  all  the 
numbers  from  100  to  1,000.  This  she  can  do  on  the  plan  sug- 
gested in  a  previous  Step,  under  the  head  of  "  Notation." 

In  order  to  do  full  justice  to  this  fundamental  exercise,  the 
children  should  compose  several  series  by  multiplying  10  succes- 
sively by  all  units;  after  this  20,  next  30,  next  40,  &c.,  up  to 
100. 

The  questions  composing  these  series  should  first  be  given 
orally,  and  analyzed,  after  which  they  may  be  written  on  their 
slates. 

The  series  will  stand  thus,  when  written : 


10  X  1  =  10 
10  X  2  =  20 
10  X  3  =  30 
10  X  4  =  40 
&c.,  to 
10  X  10  =  100 

20  X  1  =  20 
20  X  2  =  40 
20  X  3  =  60 

20  X  4  =  80 
&c.,  to 
20  X  10  =  200 

30  X  1  =  30 
30  X  2  =  60 
30  X  3  =  90 
30  X  4  —  120 
&c.,  to 
30  X  10  =  300 

This  table  should  be  read,  "One  time  ten,  two  times  ten,"  &c., 
and  not  "  Ten  times  one,"  &c. 

REMARK. — The  first  of  these  series  needs  no  comment,  since 
it  was  discussed  in  a  previous  Step,  on  Notation.  In  order  to 
prove,  in  the  second  series,  that  2  times  20  ==  40,  the  teacher 


190  NUMBER. FOURTH  STEP. 

may  ask,  Of  how  many  tens  is  20  composed  ?  2  times  2  are  how 
many  units  ?  2  times  2  tens  are  how  many  tens  ?  How  many 
units  ? 

The  succeeding  examples  may  be  treated  in  the  same  way,  till 
the  children  readily  see  the  analogy  between  the  multiplication  of 
tens  and  that  of  units. 

Many  miscellaneous  questions  should  be  given,  and  their  solu- 
tions required  ;  as,  for  instance,  5  times  80  ? 

Solution  :  5  times  8  =  40;    5  times  -8  tens  =  40  tens  =  400. 

EXEECISE  II. — Tens  and  Units  Multiplied  by  Units. 

Example :  53  X  4  ?  The  teacher  must  first  show  that  this 
question  requires  that  4  times  50  and  4  times  3  should  be  added 
together. 

Solution :  4  times  50  =  200  ;  4  times  3  =  12;  200  +  12  = 
212. 

Example :    97X9? 

Solution  :  9  times  90  ==  810  ;  9  times  7  =  63  ;  810  +  63  = 
873. 

Let  many  questions  be  added,  until  the  children  can  readily 
solve  any  question  given. 

DIVISION. 

EXERCISE. — Division  of  Numbers  not  falling  below  Ten  Times, 
and  not  exceeding  Twenty  Times  their  Divisor,  which  must  not 
exceed  10. 

Example:    37  -f-  2  ? 

As  examples  of  this  kind  are  in  their  analysis  somewhat  differ- 
ent from  those  in  multiplication,  they  require  a  fuller  development. 

The  teacher  may  ask  first,  into  what  parts  they  would  divide 
the  given  number,  before  operating  upon  it  ?  The  probable  an- 
swer would  be,  Into  30  and  7.  The  teacher  then  must  proceed  to 
show,  that  however  convenient  such  an  arrangement  would  have 
been  for  any  of  the  preceding  operations,  it  might  not  prove  to  be 
so  in  this  case.  Let  us  take  another  example  :  How  many  times 


NUMBER. — FOURTH   STEP.  191 

is  2  contained  in  30  ?  If  the  children  hesitate  in  their  answer, 
the  teacher  proceeds :  How  many  times  is  2  contained  in  20  ? 
10  times.  By  how  many  more  is  37  than  20  ?  Seventeen.  Then 
we  may  arrange  37  into  20  and  17.  How  many  times  is  2  con- 
tained in  20?  Ten  times.  And  in  17  ?  Eight  times  and  1  over. 
How  many  times  in  20  -f  17;  or  in  37  ?  10  +  8  times  and  1 
over,  or  18  times  and  1  over. 

Example  :   49-^3.     Into  what  parts  would  you  separate  49  ^ 
to  be  divided  by  3  ?     Into  30  and  19.     Why  would  you  do  so  ? 
Because  we  know  that  3  is  contained  in  30   10  times.     And  in 
19  ?     6  times  and  1  over.     Therefore  it  is  contained  in  49  how 
many  times  ?     16  times  and  1  over. 

The  children  are  thus  led  to  separate  all  the  numbers  which 
they  are  required  to  divide  in  this  Step,  into  two  numbers,  one  of 
which  is  equal  to  ten  times  its  divisor,  and  the  other  the  difference 
between  this  and  the  given  number.  Both  these  numbers  are  then 
divided,  and  their  quotients  added  together. 

The  teacher  should  not,  however,  be  satisfied  with  giving  a 
few  isolated  examples,  but  should  occupy  the  class  during  several 
lessons  by  examples  arranged  like  those  below,  the  children  giv- 
ing a  solution  for  each  example  : 

27  —  2?     37  —  2?   &c. 

33  —  3?     42  —  3?     56^-3?    &c. 

46  —  4?     53  —  4?     61-^4?     73  -7-  4  ?   &c. 

And  so  on,  using  5,  6,  7,  8,  and  9  as  divisors  of  any  number 
which  does  not  give  a  quotient  greater  than  twenty. 

The  teacher  should  continue  similar  examples,  until  the  chil- 
dren can  readily  solve  any  question  conforming  to  the  conditions 
laid  down. 

The  preceding  questions,  and  their  solutions,  will  prepare  the 
children  to  solve  on  their  slates  questions  written  on  the  black- 
board by  the  teacher,  not  by  a  mechanical  process,  but  by  a  true 
analysis  of  the  numbers  which  compose  them.  The  following 
example  will  suggest  the  manner  in  which  it  may  be  written  by 
the  children : 

Example:    1 67-4- 9? 


192  NUMBER. — FOURTH  STEP. 

Solution:    90  -~  9  =  10 

77  -e-  9  =    8  and  5  over. 


167  —  9  =  18  and  5  over. 


FRACTIONS. 

Summary  of  the  Exercises. 

I. — Exercises  on  the  names  and  values  of  Fractions. 
II. — To  convert  whole  numbers  into  Fractions. 
III. — To  convert  Fractions  into  whole  numbers. 
IV. — Conversion  of  Fractions  from  one  denomination  to  an- 
other. 

V. — Addition  of  Fractional  numbers. 

VI. — To  find  how  much  must  be  added  to  a  Fractional  num- 
ber, in  order  to  produce  a  given  number. 
VII. — Various  applications. 

I. — On  the  Names  and  Values  of  Fractions. 

Divide  this  apple  into  two  equal  pieces  or  parts.  "What  is  one 
of  these  parts  called  ?  "What  the  other  ?  And  the  two  parts 
taken  together?  What,  then,  is  a  half? 

A  half  is  one  of  two  equal  parts  of  a  whole. 

How  many  half  apples  are  there  in  one  apple  ? 

Then  one  whole  apple  is  the  same  as . 

How  did  I  obtain  the  half  of  this  apple  ? 

By  dividing  it  into  2  equal  parts,  and  taking  one  of  these 
parts. 

If,  instead  of  2  parts,  I  divide  the  apple  into  3,  what  should  I 
have  ?  3  equal  parts.  Say  3  thirds.  And  each  of  these  parts  ? 
1  third. 

What,  then,  is  the  third  part  of  a  thing  ? 

The  two  thirds  ? 

To  make  one  apple,  how  many  thirds  of  an  apple  are,  neces- 
sary ?  Then  one  whole  apple  is  the  same  as . 

How  did  I  obtain  the  third  of  the  apple  ?     How  two  thirds  ? 


NUMBER. — FOURTH  STEP.  193 

The  idea  of  the  fourth  may  be  .developed  as  the  half  and  third, 
or  as  follows  : — 

If,  after  having  divided  an  apple  into  halves,  I  divide  each 
half  into  two  other  equal  parts,  how  many  parts  shall  I  have  ? 

Ans.  4. 

Each  part  is  called  a  quarter,  or  a  fourth. 

To  make  one  apple,  how  many  quarters  or  fourths  of  an  apple 
are  required  ? 

OBSERVATION. — It  is  necessary  to  familiarize  the  child  with 
these  words,  half,  third,  fourth,  and  to  endeavor  to  give  him  a 
precise  idea  of  them,  by  making  him  take  a  certain  part  of  some 
whole ;  for  example,  of  a  roll  of  paper,  of  a  piece  of  wood,  &c. 
The  different  kinds  of  unity  should  be  varied  as  much  as  possible, 
in  order  that  the  pupil  may  not  regard  fractions  absolutely,  but 
merely  as  they  relate  to  the  unity  employed. 

Having  taken  3  different  objects  as  units,  divide  one  of  them 
into  2  equal  parts,  another  into  3,  and  the  third  into  4  ;  form  them 
into  3  groups,  and  desire  the  child  to  point  out  a  half,  a  third,  two 
thirds,  a  quarter,  two  quarters,  three  quarters.  ,  These  objects  may 
be  apples,  small  wands,  or  cubes.  Let  him  also  compare  these 
different  fractions  with  reference  to  size,  by  asking  him  which  is 
the  larger,  a  half  or  a  third  ?  a  third  or  a  quarter  ?  two  thirds  or 
three  quarters  ?  &c.  The  object  here  is  not  to  teach  him  to  find 
the  difference  with  great  exactness ;  it  is  sufficient  for  him  to  know 
that  a  half  is  more  than  a  third,  a  third  more  than  a  quarter  ;  for 
the  greater  number  of  parts  there  are  in  a  unit,  the  smaller  they 
are ;  that  three  quarters  are  more  than  two  thirds,  &c.,  &c. 


II. — Conversion  of  Whole  Numbers  into  Fractions. 

How  many  half  apples  are  there  in  2  apples  ? 
The  same  question  upon  3,  4,  5,  6  apples,  &c. 
How  many  half  feet  are  there  in  2,  3,  4,  5,  6  feet  ? 
How  many  thirds  are  there  in  2,  3,  4,  5,  6  apples  ? 
How  many  thirds  are  contained  in  2,  3,  4,  5,  6  yards  ? 
The  same  questions  may  be  asked  respecting  quarters. 
9 


194  NUMBER. FOUKTH  STEP. 

How  many  parts  would  there  be,  if  each  half  were  divided 
into  3? 

Ask  the  same  question,  if  they  were  divided  into  4,  5  parts. 

How  many  parts  would  there  be,  if  each  third  were  divided 
into  2,  3,  4,  5,  6  equal  parts  ? 

Ask  the  same  questions,  if  each  quarter  be  divided. 

OBSERVATION. — The  pupils  should  perform  these  operations 
themselves,  either  upon  apples  or  some  other  objects.  As  a  great 
quantity  of  apples  would  be  necessary  for  such  operations  as  these, 
cards  may  be  used,  divided  into  as  many  parts  as  are  requisite ; 
but  it  is  better  not  to  cut  them  entirely  through,  in  order  that  the 
child  may  preserve  the  idea  of  unity  formed  by  the  reunion  of  the 
several  parts.  Lines  may  now  be  used ;  they  are  more  conve- 
nient than  objects. 

Repeat  all  together. 

1  whole  is  equal  to    2  halves. 

2  wholes  make  4      " 

3  "  6      " 

4  "  8      " 

5  "  10      "       &c.,  &c. 

1  whole  is  equal  to    3  thirds. 

2  wholes  make  6      " 

3  "  9      " 

4  "  12      " 

5  "  15      "       &c.,  &c. 

1  whole  is  equal  to    4  quarters. 

2  wholes  make  8      " 

3  "  12      " 

4  "  16      " 

5  "  20      «       &c.,  &c. 

1  whole  is  equal  to    5  fifths. 

2  wholes  make         10      " 

3  "  15  " 

4  "  20  " 

5  "  25  " 

6  "  30  «       &c.,  &c. 


NUMBEK. FOURTH   STEP. 


195 


III. —  Conversion  of  Fractions  into  Whole  Numbers. 

How  many  apples  are  there  in  3  half  apples  ? 
,  Ans.  1  apple  and  a  half. 

Let  the  same  question  be  asked  respecting  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10 
halves,  &c. 

The  children  will  easily  perceive  that  they  must  find  how 
many  times  2  halves  are  contained  in  the  number  of  halves  of 
which  the  wholes  are  to  be  formed.  This  may  be  done  first  by 
allowing  them  to  put  two  halves  together  to  make  a  whole,  then 
two  more,  and  so  on,  until  all  have  been  counted.  But  they  must 
not  be  told. 

They  should  also  be  required  to  find  how  many  wholes  there 
are  in  a  certain  number  of  thirds,  of  fourths,  and  of  fifths. 


Simultaneous  repetition. 


Halves. 

2  make  1  whole. 

3  "  1       "      and  a  half. 

4  "  2  wholes. 

5  "  2       "      and  a  half. 

6  "  3  wholes. 

7  "  3      "     and  a  half. 

8  "  4  wholes. 

9  "  4      "     and  a  half. 
10     "  5  wholes. 

Thirds. 

3  make  1  whole. 

4  "  1       "      and  1  third. 

5  "  1       "      and  2  thirds. 

6  "  2  wholes. 

7  "  2      "      and  1  third. 

8  "  2      "      and  2  thirds. 

9  "  3  wholes. 

10     "  3      «      and  1  third. 


Halves. 
1  whole  is  equal  to  2 

1  "      and  a  half  make  3 

2  wholes  make  4 

2  "      and  a  half  make  5 

3  "      make  6 

3  "      and  a  half  make  7 

4  "      make  8 

4  •  "      and  a  half  make  9 

5  "     make  10 

Thirds. 

1  whole  is  equal  to  3 

1       "      and  1  third  make  4 

1  "      and  2  thirds  make  5 

2  wholes  make  6 
2       "      and  1  third  make  7 

2  "      and  2  thirds  make  8 

3  "»    make  9 
3      "      and  1  third  make  10 


196 


NUMBER. FOURTH   STEP. 


Quarters. 

4  make  1  whole. 


5 

u 

1 

it 

and 

1 

qr. 

6 

n 

1 

a 

and 

2 

qrs. 

7 

ti 

1 

it 

and 

3 

qrs. 

8 

it 

2 

wholes. 

9 

tt 

2 

tt 

and 

1 

qr. 

10 

a 

2 

tt 

and 

2 

qrs. 

Fifths. 

5 

make 

1 

whole. 

6 

tt 

1 

n 

and 

1 

fifth. 

7 

it 

1 

it   • 

and 

2 

fifths. 

8 

11 

1 

tt 

and 

3 

n 

9 

It 

1 

tt 

and 

4 

tt 

10 

It 

2 

wholes. 

Quarters. 

1  whole  is  equal  to  4 

1       "      and  1  qr.  make  5 

1       "      and  2  qrs.     "  6 

1  "      and  3  qrs.     "  7. 

2  wholes  are  equal  to         8 
2       "      and  1  qr.  make    9 
2       "      and  2  qrs,     "      10 

Fifths. 

1  whole  is  equal  to  5 

1  "  and  1  fifth  make  6 
1  "  and  2  fifths  "  7 
1  "  and  3  fifths  "  8 

1  "      and  4  fifths    "      9 

2  wholes  are  equal  to       10 


IV. —  Conversion  of  Fractions  from  one  Denomination  to  another. 

OBSERVATION. — The  analysis  in  the  following  exercises  must 
be  made  slowly,  by  the  children  themselves,  upon  objects,  under 
the  guidance  of  the  teacher 

How  many  quarters  are  there  in  3  thirds  ? 

Ans.  3  thirds  make  1  whole  ;   1  whole  is  equal  to  4  quarters. 

How  many  thirds  are  there  in  4  halves  ? 

Ans.  4  halves  make  2  wholes ;  2  wholes  make  6  thirds. 

How  many  quarters  are  there  in  6  halves  ? 

Ans.  6  halves  make  3  wholes;  3  wholes  make  12  quarters. 

How  many  halves  are  there  in  6  thirds  ? 

Ans.  6  thirds  make  2  wholes ;  2  wholes  make  4  halves. 

How  many  halves  are  there  in  6  quarters  ? 

Ans.  6  quarters  make  1  whole  and  a  half,  or  3  halves. 

V. — Addition  of  Fractional  Numbers. 

One  apple  and  a  half,  and  one  apple  and  a  half,  make  how 
many  apples  ? 

2  apples  and  a  half,  and  2  apples  and  a  half ? 


NUMBER. — FOURTH  STEP.  197 

3  wholes  and  a  half,  more  3  wholes ? 

4  wholes  and  a  half,  more  3  wholes  and  a  half ? 

1  whole  and  a  half,  more  1  whole  and  a  half,  more  1  whole  and 
a  half ? 

2  wholes  and  a  half,  more  4  wholes  and  a  half ? 

2  wholes  and  a  half,  more  2  wholes  and  a  half,  more  2  wholes 
and  a  half ? 

3  wholes  and  2  thirds,  more  2  wholes  and  1  third ? 

3  wholes  and  1  third,  more  2  wholes  and  2  thirds,  more  2 
wholes  and  1  third ? 

5  wholes  and  2  thirds,  more  5  wholes  and  2  thirds,  more  1 
third  ? 

3  wholes  and  1  third,  more  2  wholes  and  2  thirds,  more  3 
wholes  and  1  third  ? 

3  quarters,  more  3  quarters  ? 

2  quarters,  more  1  whole  and  2  quarters  ? 

3  quarters,  more  3  quarters,  more  3  quarters  ? 

1  whole  and  3  quarters,  more  1  whole  and  1  quarter  ? 

1  whole  and  1  quarter,  more  1  whole  and  3  quarters  ? 

3  wholes  and  3  quarters,  more  3  wholes  and  3  quarters  ? 
5  wholes  and  1  quarter,  more  3  wholes  and  3  quarters,  more  1 
whole,  and  a  half? 

3  fifths,  more  3  fifths? 

2  fifths,  more  4  fifths,  more  3  fifths  ? 

4  fifths,  more  4  fifths  ? 

3  wholes  and  2  fifths,  more  3  wholes  and  3  fifths  ?  &c.,  &c.,  &c. 

VL— —  7b  Find  how  much  must  he  Added  to  a  Fractional  Number 
in  order  to  Produce  a  Given  Number. 

How  much  must  be  added  to 

1  half  to  produce  2  wholes  ? 
3  halves     "                                  2       " 

3     "          «  3       " 

2  wholes    "  3       "       and  1  half? 

3  «          "  4       «  « 

2     "       and  1  half  to  produce  4       "  " 


198 


NUMBER. — -FOURTH    STEP. 


3  wholes  and  1  half  to  produce  5  wholes  ? 

5     "       to  produce  7       "       and  1  half? 

4  "       and  1  half  to  produce  8       " 
3  halves  to  produce  6       " 

5  "  "  5       " 


What  must  be  added  to 

1  third  to  produce  * 

2  thirds       " 
1  whole        " 

1     "  2 

1     "  "  3 

1  whole  and  2  thirds  to  produce  3 


1  whole  ? 

1  "        and  1  third  ? 

2  wholes  and  1  third  ? 

;        and  2  thirds  ? 
and  1  third  ? 


1  "  2 

1  "  2 

2  wholes  and  1  third 

2  "  1 

3  "  to  produce 
5  "  " 

10 


4 
3 
3 
3 
5 
7 


and  2  thirds  ? 

and  2  thirds  ? 
and  1  third  ? 
and  2  thirds  ? 


and  1  third  to  produce  12 


How  much  must  be  added  to 
1  quarter  ^o  produce 
2,  3  quarters  to  produce 
1  whole  " 


1  whole  ? 

1,  2,  3  wholes? 

2  wholes  and  2  quarters  ? 


and  3  quarters  to  produce     2 


and  1  half  ? 


How  much  must  be  added  to 

2  wholes  and  3  quarters  to  produce  5  wholes  ? 


2       " 

"    1  half 

4 

2       « 

"    1  quarter          " 

6 

3       " 

"   3  quarters        " 

7 

4       "       to  produce 

8 

5      " 

a 

10 

3  quarters 

u 

10 

and  1  half? 
"    1  quarter? 
"   3  quarters? 


1  whole  and  3  quarters  to  produce  10        "     &c. 


NUMBER. — FOURTH  STEP.  199 

OBSERVATION. — Other  fractions  require  less  attention  than 
halves,  thirds,  and  fourths.  It  is,  however,  necessary  that  the  pupil 
should  be  slightly  exercised  upon  them,  in  order  that  he  may  have 
an  idea  of  them — more  or  less  development  being  given  to  the 
subject,  according  to  his  age  and  information.  Some  exercises, 
similar  to  the  preceding,  should  therefore  be  given  upon  fifths, 
sixths,  and  sevenths. 

VII. —  Various  Applications. 

If  a  person  gives  to* two  children  1  apple  and  3  quarters  for 
each,  how  many  apples  will  he  have  given  ? 

He  gives  to  one  child  1  pear  and  1  third ;  how  many  will  he 
give  to  6  children  ? 

He  gives  2  apples  to  4  children,  dividing  them  equally;  how 
much  will  each  have  ?  Ans.  1  half. 

Two  apples  are  given  to  3  children ;  they  divide  them 
equally  ;  how  much  will  each  have  ?  Ans.  2  thirds. 

The  same  question  may  be  asked-,  if  3  apples  be  given  to  6 
children,  3  to  4  children,  4  to  5  children,  4  to  8  children,  &c. 

A  child  has  been  desired  to  write  1  page  and  3  quarters ;  he 
has  done  the  half  of  1  page ;  how  much  has  he  still  to  write  ? 
Ans.  1  page  and  1  quarter. 

Ask  the  same  question,  if  he  had  3  pages  and  a  half  to  write, 
and  if  he  has  written  one  and  a  half.  If  he  had  2  pages  and  3 
quarters,  and  has  done  one  and  a  half,  &c. 

A  child  had  bought  3  pounds  of  cherries ;  he  has  eaten  1 
pound  and  a  half  of  them  ;  how  much  has  he  left  ? 

I  work  every  morning  1  hour  arid  a  half;  how  many  hours 
will  that  make  in  2,  3,  4,  5,  6  days  ? 

I  work  3  hours  and  3  quarters  every  day ;  how  many  hours 
will  that  make  in  2,  3,  or  4  days  ? 

"What  do  2  hours  and  a  quarter,  2  hours  and  3  quarters,  and  1 
hour  and  a  half,  make  ? 

The  teacher  may  continue  questions  of  this  character  in  her 
discretion. 


SIZE. 


INTRODUCTORY   REMARKS. 

SIZE,  as  existing  in  all  objects,  is,  as  well  as  form  and  color, 
taken  cognizance  of  by  the  eye,  and  soon  attracts  the  attention 
of  children.  It  forms  also  an  interesting  subject  for  lessons,  from 
its  blending  amusement  with  instruction,  when  the  children  are 
permitted  to  test  the  correctness  of  their  judgment  of  the  size  of 
any  object,  by  actual  measurement  of  it.  It  is  important  they 
should  receive  correct  first  impressions  on  a  point  so  essential  to 
future  usefulness. 

In  accordance  with  our  plan  in  all  elementary  instruction,  we 
begin  by  appealing  to  the  intuitive  perception  of  the  quality  under 
consideration,  leading  the  children  to  perceive  the  existence  of 
such  a  property  as  size;  and  this  is  effected  by  drawing  their 
attention  to  various  groups  of  objects,  the  components  of  each  of 
which  differ  only  in  their  dimensions.  Observation  being  thus 
concentrated  on  this  one  property,  the  idea  of  it  will  be  realized 
without  an  effort  of  reasoning.  This  may  seem  like  giving  undue 
prominence  to  an  unimportant  process,  inasmuch  as  the  knowledge 
to  which  it  leads  will  be  necessarily  acquired  by  after  experience ; 
but  the  results  of  an  education  which  commences  thus,  laying  its 
foundation  in  clear,  distinct,  and  vivid  ideas  of  all  that  falls  within 
the  legitimate  range  of  a  child's  observation,  will  fully  justify  the 
principle  here  advocated  ;  materials  of  the  highest  value  will  be 
treasured  up  for  the  future  superstructure  ;  habits  will  be  encour- 
aged unwilling  to  be  satisfied  with  vague,  indefinite  knowledge ; 


SIZE. FIRST   STEP.  201 

and  the  organs  of  the  senses  also,  stimulated  to  healthy  exercise, 
will  learn  the  better  to  perform  their  appointed  tasks. 

When  the  children  have  gained  a  clear  notion  of  size  in  the 
abstract,  they  will  be  prepared  to  observe  its  extension  in  different 
directions,  and  to  gain  an  idea  of  relative  size,  exercising  compari- 
son, calculation,  and  accuracy  of  thought  and  expression ;  while, 
by  referring  to  examples  not  present,  the  conceptive  faculty  is 
called  out.  In  the  Second  Step  they  are  led  to  see  the  necessity 
of  a  standard  of  measurement,  and  opportunity  is  afforded  them 
for  the  practical  application  of  those  measures  of  length  and  ca- 
pacity which  are  in  ordinary  daily  use. 

FIRST   STEP. 

Object.* — 1.  To  develop  the  general  idea  of  size.  2.  To  dis- 
tinguish size,  as  it  is  exemplified  in  the  different  dimensions  of 
familiar  objects.  3.  To  exercise  the  faculty  of  comparison,  in  de- 
ciding upon  relative  size  and  proportion,  as  also  that  of  conception, 
by  applying  ideas  gained  by  actual  observation  to  objects  not  in 
sight. 

I. — The  Development  of  the  General  Idea. 

Plan. — The  children  may  be  led  to  this,  by  having  placed  before 
them  sets  of  objects,  such  as  cubes  of  wood,  balls,  books,  &c.,  dif- 
fering only  in  size.  They  should  be  directed  to  separate  from  the 
rest  those  cubes,  balls,  &c.,  that  are  quite  alike.  "When  the  gen- 
eral idea  of  size  has  been  in  some  measure  developed  by  such 
exercises,  the  teacher,  pointing  to  each  series  of  objects  in  its 
order,  may  require  the  children  to  describe  them,  by  saying  to- 
gether several  times,  "  These  are  small  balls,"  "  These  are  large 
cubes,"  &c.  They  may  then  be  exercised  on  a  wider  variety  of 
objects,  such  as  small  and  large  books,  or  small  and  large  boxes. 
They  may  then  be  desired  to  touch  or  bring  whatever  the  teacher 
may  ask  for,  as  the  small  books,  or  the  large  balls ;  and  lastly,  to 
say  whether  the  objects  on  which  the  teacher  places  her  hand  are 
large  or  small. 

*  Unless  the  children  are  quite  young,  the  first  two  points  may  be  passed 
over  quite  rapidly,  or  be  entirely  omitted. 
9* 


202  SIZE. — FIRST    STEP. 

II.    Development  of  the  Idea  of  Size,  as  Extension  in  Different 
Directions. 

The  attention  of  the  class  must  first  be  directed  to  exten- 
sion in  length.  The  teacher  may  place  before  it  laths  or  strings 
of  different  lengths,  arranging  them  in  sets  of  uniform  size  ;  and 
also  draw  lines  on  the  board,  grouping  them  according  to  their 
'length  ;  these  illustrations  will  give  the  first  idea  of  the  extension 
W  size  in  one  direction.  After  some  questions  as  to  what  differ- 
ence they  see  in  the  laths,  strings,  &c.,  the  children  should  repeat, 
"  The  laths,  strings,  &c.,  are  of  different  lengths."  They  may 
then  obtain  some  idea  of  relative  length,  by  the  teacher  holding  up 
the  longest  and  shortest  lath  or  string,  and  leading  them  by  ques- 
tions to  the  idea  of  longest  and  shortest.  They  may  next  be  called 
on  themselves  to  select  the  longest  and  the  shortest  of  each  class 
of  objects,  and  having  thus  given  practice  to  the  eye,  they  may 
simultaneously  express  the  result  of  the  exercise,  saying,  "  This  is 
a  long  lath,"  "  This  is  the  shortest,"  "  This  is  the  longest,"  "  This 
is  a  long  string,"  "  This  is  the  longest,"  &c.  Their  observation 
of  length  may  now  be  extended  to  other  objects  in  the  room ;  as, 
"Who  has  long  hair  ?  Who  has  short  hair  ?  Point  out  the  long- 
est form — the  longest  board — the  longest  side  of  the  room,  &c. 
After  this,  a  variety  of  objects  may  be  placed  before  the  class,  and 
the  children  will  be  required  to  describe  the  length  of  each  by  its 
suitable  term. 

In  the  same  way  the  children  should  be  led  to  acquire  the  idea 
of  breadth  or  width,  and  narrowness.  Ribbons  of  differing  breadths 
afford  convenient  illustrations.  They  may  'be  told  to  select  the 
widest,  the  narrowest,  &c.,  of  these,  and  to  arrange  them  accord- 
ing to  their  respective  widths. 

The  idea  of  thickness  and  thinness  may  be  illustrated  by  the 
use  of  blocks  of  wood,  wafers,  buttons,  &c.,  or  by  familiar  conver- 
sation about  thick  and  thin  slices  of  bread  and  butter,  or  of  cake. 

The  kindred  idea  of  depth  may  be  elicited  in  the  same  manner, 
as  it  is  exemplified  in  a  well,  a  hole,  a  jug,  or  bucket ;  and  that  of 
height,  by  observing  the  room,  a  tree,  or  the  spire  of  a  church. 
The  teacher  might  show  the  real  identity  of  depth  and  height,  by 


SIZE. FIRST    STEP.  203 

asking  how  the  elevation  of  a  cliff  would  be  spoken  of,  under  dif- 
fering positions  of  an  observer.  If  he  stood  at  the  top,  and  looked 
down,  he  might  say,  "It  is  deep ; "  if  he  stood  at  its  base  and 
looked  up,  he  would  say,  "  It  is  high." 

The  several  steps  of  the  lessons  on  color,  form,  and  size, 
should  be  carried  on  simultaneously  ;  but  after  a  while,  objects 
may  be  produced,  in  each  of  which  the  children  will  recognize 
several  diverse  qualities.  For  instance,  they  may  be  told  to  select 
a  small  white  round  object ;  a  long  narrow  piece  of  blue  ribbon  ; 
or  a  shallow  white  plate.  They  will  thus,  in  the  same  object,  find 
an  example  of  form,  of  color,  and  of  size. 

III.  Relative  Size  and  Proportion  of  Objects. 

Plan. — Laths  of  different  lengths  may  be  placed  before  the 
children,  from  which  they  may  first  select  all  those  which  are  of 
the  same  length,  and  then  arrange  these  according  to  their  relative 
lengths,  from  the  shortest  to  the  longest.  The  teacher  may  then 
require  them  to  select  two  short  laths,  which  together  are  equal  to 
the  long  one  she  herself  holds  ;  and  afterward  three  or  four  others 
which  together  form  the  same  length :  this  may  be  done  also  with 
tape  or  string.  Similar  exercises  may  be  carried  out  with  curved 
forms.  Several  sets  of  concentric  circles,  of  varying  size,  cut 
out  of  thick  pasteboard,  may  be  placed  before  the  children :  they 
may  first  select  all  the  circles  of  one  size,  and  then  arrange  them 
according  to  their  relative  size,  beginning  with  the  largest ;  finally, 
they  may  prove  how  far  their  arrangement  of  them  is  correct,  by 
fitting  them  one  into  another  till  the  dissected  circle  is  complete. 

The  following  series  of  exercises  will  be  found  suitable  at  this 
step  : 

Let  the  children  determine  the  relative  lengths  of  lines  drawn 
in  differing  directions,  as  to  which  is  the  shortest,  and  which  the 
longest ;  and  let  them  decide  the  relative  distances  between  dots 
placed  in  different  positions  on  the  board ;  or  the  distance  between 
various  parallel  lines ;  or  the  relative  size  of  angles,  &c.  They 
may  also  determine  which  of  a  number  of  lines  slope  the  most, 
and  which  the  least — first,  by  comparing  them  with  a  vertical  line 


204:  SIZE. SECOND   STEP. 

drawn  on  another  part  of  the  board,  and  afterward  without  this 
help.  The  same  exercise  may  be  carried  out  with  horizontal  lines. 
The  children  may  also  determine  the  proportion  which  one  line 
bears  to  another — whether  it  is  half  its  length,  or  double  its 
length,  &c.,  without  at  present  attaining  actual  precision.  The 
children  should  pursue  these  exercises  till  they  are  enabled  to 
judge  of  the  relative  size  of  an  object  by  the  eye,  with  tolerable 
accuracy. 

They  may  next  be  called  upon  to  divide  straight  lines  drawn 
in  different  directions,  into  two,  three,  four,  &c.,  equal  or  given 
parts ;  their  companions  being  required  to  give  an  opinion  as  to 
the  correctness  with  which  the  direction  is  executed.  This  exer- 
cise may  be  carried  out  also  upon  curved  lines,  and  may  be  applied 
to  the  lengths  of  different  parts  of  the  room  and  of  its  furniture. 

The  power  of  conception  may  be  called  out,  by  referring  to 
things  not  present ;  for  example,  the  children  may  be  required  to 
say  what  animals  have  long  or  short  tails — long  or  short  ears ; 
what  streets  or  roads  are  broad,  narrow,  or  long.  A  variety  of 
similar  illustrations  will  at  once  suggest  themselves  to  the  mind  of 
the  intelligent  teacher. 


SECOND   STEP. 

Object. — To  lead  the  children  to  perceive  the  necessity  for  the 
adoption  of  standard  measures  of  length,  &c.,  and  to  make  them 
familiar  with  those  established  by  law  or  usage. 

Plan. — The  teacher  holds  up  a  long  and  a  short  lath,  or  a  long 
and  a  short  piece  of  string,  and  asks  the  children  what  they  can 
say  of  them ;  thus  awakening  the  consciousness  of  their  having 
already  acquired  ideas  of  general  and  relative  size.  They  should 
then  be  led  to  feel  that  this  is  not  enough.  The  teacher  might 
suppose  herself  wanting  some  ribbon  for  her  bonnet,  and  might 
ask  whether  it  is  probable,  if  she  sent  to  the  shop  for  a  long  piece, 
that  they  would  know  exactly  how  much  to  send  ?  Having,  by 
a  few  such  illustrations,  convinced  the  children  that  something 
more  definite  than  the  general  and  relative  measures,  long,  short, 


SIZE. SECOND    STEP.  205 

broad,  narrow,  &c.,  is  absolutely  necessary,  the  teacher  may  show 
them  a  yard  measure,  and  tell  them  that  this  is  a  standard  of 
length,  which  has  been  universally  adopted  in  this  country,  ancl 
that  it  is  called  a  yard.  She  may  then  send  to  another  room,  and 
ask  some  one  to  cut  a  yard  of  string,  and  send  it  to  her.  The 
children  should  be  told  to  measure  this;  they  will  find  it  exactly 
the  same  length  as  the  standard  yard  she  had  produced.  It  is  de- 
sirable that  some  such  act  as  this  should  fix  the  idea  on  the  mind. 
The  children  may  then  be  told  that  the  yard-measure  is  this  length 
in  every  store  in  the  country,  as  well  as  in  the  next  room. 

The  standard  measures  of  length  might  be  marked  horizontally 
on  the  floor,  or  perpendicularly  on  the  walls  of  the  school-room,  in 
order  to  accustom  the  children  to  the  use  of  them  in  measuring 
lines  and  objects.  • 

A  Lesson  on  Measuring  by  the  Standard  Measures  of  Length. 

No  opportunity  should  be  lost  of  giving  practice  to  the  eye  in 
determining  the  length  of  objects  by  these  measurements.  Chil- 
dren are  greatly  interested  in  themselves  endeavoring  to  determine 
the  size  of  things,  and  in  having  their  judgment  tested  by  actual 
trial.  The  children  should  carefully  observe  the  length  of  the 
yard,  as  it  is  held .  by  the  teacher  in  various  positions,  and  at  vari- 
ous distances  from  the  eye :  they  should  notice  the  apparent 
change  which  takes  place  in  its  length  under  each  change  of  posi- 
tion, that  they  may  be  prepared  to  take  this  fact  into  consideration 
when  calculating  the  size  of  objects  in  different  positions  and  at 
various  distances.  They  may  also  be  required  to  find  two  objects, 
as  two  pieces  of  string,  or  two  laths,  which  are  together  equal  to 
the  yard  ;  thus  introducing  the  idea  of  the  half-yard,  as  being  the 
length  of  one  of  these.  Again,  they  may  produce  four  similar 
objects,  which,  when  united,  also  form  a  complete  yard ;  and  thus 
gain  the  idea  of  a  quarter  of  a  yard,  as  being  the  length  of  one 
of  these. 

In  a  further  lesson,  the  idea  of  a  foot  may  be  communicated 
in  the  same  manner,  showing  that  it  is  the  third  of  a  yard ;  and 
also  the  idea  of  the  inch  and  of  the  nail.  The  children  should  be 
exercised  in  determining  the  relative  size  of  these  measures,  i.  e., 


206  SIZE — SECOND    STEP. 

the  proportion  each  of  them  bears  to  the  yard ;  and  also  their 
positive  size,  as  unvarying  standard  measures. 

These  exercises  may  be  continued,  until  the  eye  can  decide  on 
particular  lengths  with  tolerable  accuracy ;  after  which  the  chil- 
dren may  be  called  on  to  determine  the  length  of  lines  combined 
in  various  figures ;  the  circumference  or  girth  of  various  objects ; 
they  may  then  proceed  to  dimensions  of  greater  extent — those,  for 
instance,  of  the  floor  and  walls  of  the  schoolroom,  or  of  the  play- 
ground. 

Dry  Measure. 

Bring  before  the  children  the  peck,  the  half-peck,  and  the 
quarter-peck  measures,  and  ask  if  they  know  what  things  are 
bought  and  sold  by  this  measure  ?  Then  select  the  largest  of  the 
measures,  and  having  told  a  child  to  fill  it  with  bran,  turn  out  its 
contents  upon  a  cloth,  and  tell  the  class  that  the  measure  is  called 
"  a  peck  measure,"  and  that  the  quantity  of  bran  it  contained  is 
called  "a  peck"  of  bran.  Then  require  a  child  to  fill  the  next 
smaller  measure,  and  to  empty  its  contents  into  the  peck  measure. 
How  much  of  the  peck  does  it  fill  ?  Half  of  it.  By  what  name, 
then,  may  this  smaller  measure  be  called  ?  If  this  is  half  a  peck, 
how  many  of  them  will  make  one  peck?  Prove  this  by  measure- 
ment. Then  let  the  children  repeat,  "  Two  half  pecks,  equal  to 
one  peck."  The  same  plan  may  be  pursued  with  the  quarter- 
peck  ;  and  when  these  measures  have  become  familiar,  the  children 
may  be  questioned  upon  them,  thus  : 

If  one  person  buy  four  quarters  of  a  peck  of  bran,  and  another 
buy  half  a  peck,  how  much  has  the  one  more  than  the  other  ? 
How  many  half  pecks  in  four  quarter  pecks  ?  How  many  whole 
pecks  ?  If  I  pay  five  cents  for  half  a  peck  of  peas,  what  must  I 
pay  for  one  peck?  Require  the  children  to  go  through  the  pro- 
cess thus  :  One  half  peck  costs  five  cents  ;  two  half  pecks,  which 
are  equal  to  one  peck,  will  cost  two  times  five  cents,  or  ten  cents. 
If  the  teacher  cannot  produce  a  bushel  measure,  the  children  may 
be  told  that  four  pecks  are  equal  to  a  measure  called  a  bushel. 
They  may  then  be  questioned  on  that  measure  also. 

The  following  table  of  these  measures  of  capacity  may  now  be 
written  on  the  blackboard,  thus : 


SIZE. SECOND    STEP.  207 

Quarter.  Half  Peck.  Peck.  Bushel. 

2  =  1 

2  =  1 

4  1 

The  children  should  then  read  out  the  table  once  or  twice 
simultaneously,  that  the  teacher  may  ascertain  that  it  is  under- 
stood. They  should  then  learn  it  thoroughly  by  silent  repetition. 
Theygnay  afterward  be  required  to  write  it  out  from  memory. 

The  first  four  denominations  in  wine  measure  may  be  treated 
in  a  similar  way,  viz.,  gill,  pint,  quart,  and  gallon.  Beyond  this  it 
is  perhaps  hardly  profitable  to  go  until  the  children  come  to  learn 
the  tables. 

Actual  measures,  both  those  of  linear  and  superficial  extension, 
and  those  of  solid  and  liquid  capacity,  should  be  set  before  the 
children,  until  both  sight  and  touch  are  perfectly  familiar  with 
them.  Practice  in  these,  and  in  the  use  of  the  scales  and  weights 
used  in  lessons  on  weight,  should  precede  the  learning  by  heart  of 
formal  tables  of  weights  and  measures.  Such  practice  affords 
most  useful  mental  exercise,  and  secures  a  thorough  understanding 
of  the  importance  and  value  of  standard  measures.  When  this 
has  been  attained,  the  children  may  commit  the  tables  to  memory 
with  advantage,  and  then,  with  a  thorough  comprehension  of  their 
several  gradations,  proceed  to.  the  acquirement  of  facility  in  the 
practical  application  of  them. 


WEIGHT. 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS. 

MANY  important  scientific  truths  are  involved  in  this  subject, 
but  it  is  obvious  that  scientific  details  are  inexpedient  in  lessons 
such  as  these,  which  are  intended  to  help  those  whose  minds  are 
just  opening  to  the  perception  of  truth  as  it  meets  them  in  daily 
experience.  Still,  while  the  whole  of  truth  cannot  just  yet  be  told, 
because  the  mind  of  the  little  listener  cannot  properly  receive  it, 
it  is  essential  that  whatever  is  told  should  be  part  of  that  great 
whole,  on  the  further  steps  of  which  the  more  matured  mind  may 
exercise  itself  without  having  to  retrace  the  path. 

In  the  subject  now  before  us  it  is  important  that  the  teacher  should 
remember  that  the  WEIGHT  of  any  object  is  the  force  with  which  it 
is  drawn  toward  the  centre  of  the  earth.  Any  one  who  would  raise 
a  heavy  stone  from  the  ground  must  exert  an  amount  of  force  in 
lifting  it  up,  somewhat  exceeding  that  by  which  the  earth's  attrac- 
tion drags  it  down.  It  is  chiefly  in  this  aspect  of  resistance  that 
.  the  property  of  weight  is  an  object  of  infantile  perception. 

Through  what  medium  does  a  child  attain  to  this  perception  ? 
Possibly  through  several  bodily  powers.  It  is  not  by  means  of 
the  sense  of  touch  alone  that  the  idea  is  attained ;  for  this  sense 
may  be  perfect,  where  a  child  is  too  weak  to  lift  a  pencil.  It  is  in 
truth  through  the  exercise  of  muscular  power  that  a  weight  is 
raised  or  moved ;  and  therefore  it  is  by  this  capability,  aided  and 
directed  by  sight  and  touch,  that  the  idea  of  weight  in  the  abstract 
is  acquired,  and  different  degrees  of  it  compared. 


WEIGHT. FIRST    STEP.  209 

FIKST    STEP. 

Object. — To  lead  the  children  to  the  perception  of  WEIGHT  in 
the  abstract,  and  to  the  difference  in  the  relative  weight  of  vari- 
ous substances,  both  solids  and  liquids,  as  compared  with  their 
relative  bulk. 

Plan  for  Developing  the  General  Idea  of  Weight. — The  chil* 
dren  should  be  told  to  lift  various  objects  presented  to  them,  or  to 
poise  them  in  their  hands,  and  to  mention  any  differences  they 
perceive.  They  will  notice  that  the  things  they  have  lifted  differ 
in  weight,  some  possessing  much  weight,  others  comparatively 
little.  They  should  then  learn  that  those  things  of  which  the 
weight  is  considerable,  are  said  to  be  heavy,  and  that  those  of 
which  the  weight  is  little,  are  called  light.  They  should  then  be 
taught,  by  the  comparison  of  objects  of  various  weight,  properly 
to  apply  the  terms  heavy  and  light,  heavier  and  lighter,  heaviest 
and  lightest ;  and  lastly,  let  the  children  arrange  them  in  order  ac- 
cording to  their  weight.  The  teacher  may  then  lead  the  children 
to  analyze  their  perception  of  weight.  "When  you  lift  a  very 
heavy  stone,  by  what  means  do  you  raise  it  1  By  putting  out  all 
our  strength.  And  when  you  lift  a  feather  ?  "We  do  so  with  great 
ease. 

Plan  for  Developing  the  Idea  of  Relative  Weight,  and  of  Weight 
as  Compared  with  Relative  Bulk. — Bring  before  the  children  a 
miscellaneous  collection  of  objects,  differing  in  both  weight  and 
bulk,  as  also  objects  of  the  same  bulk,  but  differing  in  weight ;  as, 
lead,  iron,  coal,  wood,  cork,  bags  of  shavings,  sand,  feathers,  shot, 
peas,  pebbles,  beans,  &c. ;  a  phial  of  quicksilver ;  also  various 
liquids,  as  water,  milk,  spirits,  oil,  &c. 

1.  Develop  idea  of  hulk.      Exercise  the  children  in  finding 
objects  great  in  bulk,  small  in  bulk,  same  in  bulk ;  lastly  arrang- 
ing them  in  order  according  to  their  bulk. 

2.  Compare  objects  as  to  weight  and  bulk ;  as,  This  cork  has 
much  bulk,  but  little  weight ;  This  lead  has  little  bulk,  but  much 
weight,  &c. 

3.  Children  find  objects  same  in  bulk,  but  differing  in  weight  ; 
same  in  weight,  but  differing  in  bulk. 


210  WEIGHT. SECOND    STEP. 

4.  Compare  solid  objects  as  to  weight,  at  first  making  simply 
individual  comparisons  ;  as,  This  lead  is  the  heaviest,  this  stone  is 
next  heaviest,  this  wood  is  next  heaviest,  &c. 

5.  Let  the  children  now  make  a  general  classification  of  ob- 
jects as  to  their  weight ;  as,  Metals  are  heaviest,  minerals  next 
heaviest,  wood  next,  textile  fabrics  next,  &c. 

6.  In  a  similar  way  compare  liquids,   giving  water  as  the 
standard. 

A  small  quantity  of  oil  may  be  poured  into  a  phial,  and  upon 
it  some  water ;  the  water  will  displace  the  oil,  and  sink  below  it. 
Why  ?  It  is  the  heavier  liquid.  Then  some  quicksilver  may  be 
added  ;  it  again  sinks  below  the  water.  "Why  ?  Because  quick- 
silver is  heavier  than  either  water  or  oil.  In  a  similar  way  com- 
pare the  other  liquids. 

The  children  should  be  encouraged  to  describe  the  facts  they 
observe  in  their  own  language  ;  as,  The  feathers  are  light,  the  shot 
is  heavy  ;  oil  is  light,  quicksilver  is  heavy.  They  should  also  be 
led  to  perceive  that  there  may  be  large  quantities  of  some  sub- 
stances, as  of  bran  or  feathers,  which,  though  of  great  bulk,  pos- 
sess but  little  weight ;  whilst  but  a  small  portion  of  other  sub- 
stances, as,  for  instance,  of  metals,  is  heavy.  They  will  thus 
arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  the  bulk  of  an  object  is  no  reliable 
indication  of  its  specific  weight. 


SECOND    STEP. 

Object. — To  lead  the  children  to  perceive  the  necessity  for 
adopting  standard  measures  of  weight,  and  to  make  them  prac- 
tically acquainted  with  those  in  most  common  use. 

Plan. — The  children  have  already  been  led  to  see  that  heavy 
and  light  are  relative  terms — the  thing  which,  when  compared 
with  one  object,  is  called  light,  being  said  to  be  heavy  when  com- 
pared with  another.  Hence  arises  the  necessity  for  an  unchang- 
ing standard  of  weight,  with  which  the  weights  of  substances  may 
be  determined.* 

*  Exercises  with  scales  and  weights  may  be  used  at  this  step  with  much 


WEIGHT. SECOND   STEP.  211 

In  developing  this  idea,  the  same  plan  may  be  pursued  as  in 
illustrating  the  necessity  of  standard  measures  of  size.  The  chil- 
dren should  also  here  be  taught  the  use  of  scales  and  weights,  and 
the  necessity  of  standard  weights,  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
measures  of  size  were  learned  (page  201.)  They  should  be  much 
practised  in  judging  of  the  weight  of  miscellaneous  objects,  always 
testing  the  correctness  of  their  judgments  by  varying  the  objects 
before  the  class.  As  a  last  exercise,  the  children  may  learn  the 
table  of  avoirdupois  weight.  This  may  be  formed  after  the  ex- 
ample given  in  the  lesson  on  dry  measure. 

In  all  the  exercises  on  weight,  the  pound  is  taken  as  the 
standard. 

In  exercising  the  children  to  judge  of  weight,  begin  by  pass- 
ing around  the  class  weights,  or  objects,  that  weigh  just  a  pound. 
Tell  the  children  their  weight,  and  request  them  to  hold  them  in 
their  right  hands,  and  think  just  how  heavy  they  are,  as  they  will 
soon  have  some  other  objects,  to  decide  whether  they  are  heavier 
or  lighter  than  this  weight,  and  how  much.  Next  pass  around 
half-pound  or  two-pound  weights,  requesting  the  children  to  hold 
them  in  their  right  hands,  just  as  they  did  the  pound  weights,  and 
think  how  much  they  weigh.  "When  the  weights  have  gone 
round,  call  for  the  judgments  of  the  class,  and  let  one  of  those  who 
come  the  nearest  to  the  correct  weight,  test  the  correctness  of 
the  guessing  by  weighing.  These  exercises  should  be  frequently 
repeated  with  miscellaneous  objects,  until  they  can  judge  with  tol- 
erable accuracy  of  the  weight  of  various  objects.  Request  them 
to  bring  in  objects  of  a  given  weight,  always  testing,  or  rather 
allowing  them  to  test,  the  correctness  of  the  selection  by  weigh- 
ing. These  exercises  never  fail  to  interest  the  children,  and  it  is 
astonishing  how  accurate  they  will  soon  become  in  judging  of 
weight,  and  thus  will  have  cultivated  a  sense  of  great  practical 
utility,  but  which  is  ordinarily  neglected. 

advantage.    It  is  better  to  begin  at  first  with  the  larger  weights,  as,  the  pound, 
half-pound,  and  quarter-pound,  these  being  most  readily  distinguished. 


SOUND. 


INTRODUCTORY     REMARKS. 

FEW  things  are  more  useful,  in  all  positions  of  life,  than  a 
delicate  and  discriminating  perception  of  the  varied  qualities  of 
SOUND,  with  facilities  of  reproducing  known  sounds  at  will.  It  is 
on  these  attainments  that  the  effectiveness  of  the  good  reader  and 
speaker,  as  well  as  that  of  the  skilled  musician,  chiefly  depends. 
These  faculties  are  in  constant  activity  in  all  the  familiar  scenes 
of  daily  life  and  social  intercourse  ;  unitedly  they  form  one  noble 
distinctive  feature,  by  which  man  is  exalted  far  above  all  other 
animate  beings  of  God's  creation,  and,  in  their  exercise,  may  be 
found  at  all  times  a  fruitful  source  of  innocent,  profitable,  and  ex- 
alting pleasure. 

Under  judicious  exercise,  the  organ  of  hearing  is  susceptible 
of  a  high  degree  of  perceptive  cultivation.  The  organs  of  voice 
also  are  equally  capable  of  practical  improvement ;  and  the  earlier 
in  life  the  education  of  these  organs  is  commenced,  the  more  cer- 
tain and  satisfactory  will  be  the  results  attained. 


FIRST    STEP. 

Object. — To  develop  the  general  idea  of  sound,  and  also  to 
show  that  it  possesses  great  variety. 

Plan. — The  teacher  to  utter  some  sounds  with  her  own  voice, 
and  also  to  produce  others  by  means  of  sonorous  objects ;  thus 
leading  the  children  to  perceive  the  existence  of  the  quality  of 


SOUND. — FIRST   STEP.  213 

sound,  and  to  observe  that  it  is  made  known  to  us  by  the  organ 
of  hearing.  They  may  then  be  exercised  in  distinguishing  com- 
mon and  familiar  sounds,  and  in  determining  by  the  ear  by  what 
f  means  they  are  produced  ;  and  in  endeavoring  to  imitate  some  of 
them  by  the  vgice.  The  teacher  may  then  sing  some  simple  tune, 
to  awaken  the  perception  of  melody,  and  to  encourage  the  dawn* 
ings  of  musical  taste. 

Subjects  for  Lessons  at  this  Step. 

1.  Objects  for  producing  different  tones  to  be  sounded,  and  the 
children  to  be  exercised  in  deciding  by  the  sense  of  hearing  only, 
from  what  kind  of  substance  the  sound  was  produced ;  as,  a  bell, 
a  drum,  a  glass  full  of  water,  another  half  full,  another  empty, 
china,  different  metals,  &c. 

2.  Sounds  made  by  men  and  animals  to  be  imitated ;  the  chil- 
dren to  say  what  the  sound  is  intended  to  represent. 

3.  Simultaneous  movements  to  be  carried  out,  especially  those 
involving  sound  in  measured  time  ;  such  as  clapping  hands,  march- 
ing in  time,  stamping  with  the  feet,  simultaneous  counting,  &c. 

4.  The  children  to  be  called  on  to  decide  which  of  their  com- 
panions is  speaking,  having  first  been  directed  to  close  their  eyes. 

5.  The  teacher  to  sing  some  very  simple  melodies,  some  of 
them  quick  and  lively,  others  slow  and  solemn ;    the  children  to 
say  which  of  them  they  prefer. 

Sketch  of  a  Lesson  on  Sounds. 


I. — Sounds    distin- 
guished. 


I. — Children  to  say  with  what  they 
hear.  Teacher  tells  them  she  wants  to 
find  out  who  can  hear  best.  She  goes  be- 
hind a  screen,  or  asks  the  children  to  close 
their  eyes,  rings  a  bell,  asks  what  the  noise 
was,  and  how  made ;  rings  a  quarter  dol- 
lar on  the  table,  blows  a  whistle,  sounds  a 
tuning-fork,  strikes  an  empty  glass,  also  a 
glass  full  of  water,  knocks  with  a  ham- 
mer, with  a  ruler,  &c.,  the  children  always 
deciding  how  each  sound  is  made.  Should 
they  be  at  a  loss,  the  teacher  produces  the 


214: 


SOUND. — FIRST   STEP. 


II. — Sounds     com- 
pared. 


III.  —  Sounds      ar- 
ranged 


noise  in  their  presence,  desiring  them  to 
listen  in  order  that  they  may  discover  how 
it  was  produced. 

II. — 1.  Children  told  they  are  going  to 
hear  four  of  the  sounds  they  heard  before, 
in  order  that  they  may  decide  which  are 
most  alike.  The  teacher,  still  behind  the 
screen,  touches  the  bell  so  as  to  produce 
one  tone,  rings  the  quarter  on  the  table, 
sounds  the  tuning-fork,  rings  the  bell 
sharply.  Children  decide  by  ear  that  the 
first  and  third  sounds  resemble  each  other; 
also  the  second  and  fourth. 

2.  Teacher    again    sounds   the   tuning- 
fork,  blows  the  whistle,  touches  the  bell  so 
as  to  produce  one  sound  ;   children  to  de- 
scribe whether  the  third  sound  resembles 
more  the  first  or  the  second. 

3.  Teacher  strikes  a  small  hammer  on 
the  table,  strikes  an  empty  glass,  knocks 
with  her  heel,  knocks  a  full  glass.     Chil- 
dren compare  sounds,   and  decide  which 
resemble  each  other. 

III. — Children  hear  the  sounds  once 
more,  to  decide  which  they  like  best,  and 
then  arrange  them  in  the  order  of  sweet- 
ness or  melody,  going  from  the  least  to 
the  most  musical.  When  they  disagree, 
compare  the  sounds,  and  train  the  ear  in 
deciding. 

The  sounds  will  probably  stand  as  fol- 
lows, written  on  the  board  : 

1.  Sound  of  ruler  on  wood. 

2.  Hammer  on  wood. 

3.  Full  glass. 

4.  Empty  glass. 

5.  Coin. 

6.  Bell. 

7.  Whistle. 

8.  Tuning-fork. 


SOUND. — SECOND    STEP. 


215 


SECOND    STEP. 


Sketch  of  Lesson  for  this  Step. 

Point. — To  exercise  the  children  in-  distinguishing  sounds,  and 
also  tune,  in  order  to  cultivate  an  ear  for  music. 


I.  —  Voices     distin- 
guished. 


II. — Sounds  distin- 
guished as  to  Times. 


III. — Sounds  distin- 


I. — Bring  a  girl  and  a  boy  before  the 
children.  Require  them  to  give  their 
names,  and  let  the  rest  call  them  by  their 
names.  Tell  the  children  in  their  seats 
that  these  are  going  to  say  something, 
and  that  they  must  listen  to  their  voices 
so  as  to  distinguish  them.  Let  the  boy 
and  girl  repeat  individually,  "  The  clock 
strikes."  Require  the  rest  to  notice  the 
difference  in  their  voices.  Bring  another 
boy.  Let  each  of  the  boys  repeat  the 
same  sentence,  the  rest  to  decide  as  before. 
Bring  another  girl,  and  repeat  the  same 
exercise,  the  rest  deciding. 

Tell  the  children  that  they  must  now 
decide  on  the  voice  without  seeing  the 
speaker.  Put  the  two  boys  out  of  sight ; 
touch  the  boy  who  is  to  speak,  and  let  the 
children  decide  who  it  was  that  spoke. 
Proceed  in  the  same  manner  with  the  girls. 
Put  all  four  out"  of  sight,  letting  one  of 
them  repeat  the  same  sentence,  or  sing 
a  verse,  exercising  the  rest  in  deciding 
whether  it  was  a  boy  or  girl  who  spoke, 
and  which  boy  or  girl. 

II. — Require  them  to  clap  hands  as  the 
teacher  counts  one,  two,  three ;  children 
to  count  as  the  teacher  dteps  hands.  Re- 
peat these  exercises  four,  five,  and  six 
times,  instead  of  three,  and  call  on  indi- 
vidual children  to  perform  them.  Strike 
the  pointer  against  the  frame  of  the  board, 
making  the  beats  regular  and  irregular,  till 
they  can  distinguish  the  difference. 

III. — Sing  some  very  simple  melodies, 


216  SOUND. — SECOND   STEP. 


guished  as  to  Time  and 
Tune. 


without  words.  Let  the  children  decide 
which  they  like  the  best.  Sing  these 
melodies  twice  over,  with  or  without  the 
words,  first  slowly  and  then  quickly.  Try 
and  get  them  to  see  that  some  airs  are 
naturally  plaintive,  and  some  lively. 


LIST   OF   LESSONS   ON   SOUNDS,    FOB   THIS   STEP. 

Hammer,  Bell,  Whistle. 
Glasses  full  and  empty. 
China,  Delft,  Glass. 

Coins  of  different  metals ;    as,  gold,  silver,  copper,  selecting 
those  of  as  nearly  the  same  size  as  may  be. 
Voices. 

Further  exercises  should  also  be  had  to  lead  the  children  to 
discover  that  musical  sounds  have  the  three  distinct  properties  of 
length  or  duration,  pitch  or  tone,  and  force  or  volume.  At  first 
these  qualities  should  be  taught  separately,  and  the  idea  of  feme,  as 
being  the  most  easy  of  apprehension,  should  be  that  commenced 
with.  The  children  should  also  be  led  to  observe  that  there  may 
be  either  a  prolongation  of  the  sound  of  the  notes  themselves,  or 
of  the  interval  or  pause  between  them. 

Plan. — To  give  the  children  the  idea  of  the  quality  of  time  as 
applied  to  sound,  some  notes  should  be  uttered,  at  first  very  slowly» 
and  afterward  rapidly,  making  them  observe  and  state  the  differ- 
ence in  these  two  methods.  Next  the  teacher  may  sing  some 
simple  air,  requiring  the  children  to  listen  and  beat  time,  first  under 
guidance,  and  then  unaided.  They  should  then  practise  singing 
an  air  in  unison  with  the  teacher,  she  taking  the  lead  and  beating 
time.  After  thi*  they  should  sing  the  exercises  by  themselves, 
she  beating  time  ;  and  lastly,  they  may  be  exercised  in  both  sing- 
ing and  beating  time  themselves.  Practice  in  simultaneous  move- 
ments, actions,  and  utterances,  helps  to  the  cultivation  of  a  correct 
perception  of  time ;  and  children  derive  great  pleasure  from  such 
measured  simultaneous  exercises,  for  they  appeal  to  the  powerful 
agent  of  sympathy.  Children  may  easily  be  taught  to  appreciate 


SOUND. SECOND    STEP.  217 

the  difference  in  the  intervals  between  notes,  by  counting  whilst 
the  sounds  are  being  uttered — at  first  the  time  between  the  notes 
being  considerable,  and  therefore  obvious. 

The  next  quality  to  be  brought  under  observation  is  that  of 
pitch  or  tone.  The  teacher  should  run  up  the  common  scale, 
through  a  whole  octave,  to .  give  the  children  an  idea  that  there 
are  different  notes ;  and  then  by  selecting  a  deep  note,  and  after- 
ward sounding  its  octave,  point  out  their  agreement.  The  class 
may  then  be  practised  in  imitating  these  sounds.  At  this  point 
various  exercises  may  be  introduced  which  will  greatly  interest 
the  class,  and  they  may  now  be  taught  that  each  sound  is  repre- 
sented by  its  particular  symbol ;  and  by  a  comparison  of  the  let- 
ters as  used  as  representatives  of  sounds  in  music,  with  the  use  of 
them  as  symbols  of  sound  in  language,  they  may  be  taught  the 
mode  in  which  one  thing  may  represent  another,  and  to  what  end 
standard  symbols  have  been  established  for  general  convenience. 
If  the  children  cannot  grasp  the  idea  at  this  step,  though  in  most 
cases  it  may  be  impressed  upon  the  mind,  it  should  not  be  lost 
sight  of  by  the  teacher. 

The  third  quality  of  musical  sounds  which  the  children  should 
learn  to  distinguish,  is  that  of  force  or  volume.  This  depends 
upon  the  power  by  which  tones  are  produced,  and  may  be  in- 
creased or  diminished  indefinitely.  It  may  be  exemplified  by 
comparing  the  deep  sound  of  the  ocean  in  a  storm,  or  the  roar  of 
the  majestic  lion,  with  the  faint  cry  of  the  infant.  To  give  the 
idea,  the  teacher  should  sing  a  note  in  a  soft  but  steady  tone,  fol- 
lowing it  up  by  another  in  a  loud  and  full  tone,  calling  upon  the 
children  first  to  state  the  difference  between  the  two,  and  then 
themselves  to  join  in  the  exercise.  This  should  afterward  be  fre- 
quently repeated  by  the  children  alone,  loud  or  soft,  at  the  discre- 
tion of  the  teacher.  They  may  then  be  exercised  on  different 
notes  in  the  same  way.  The  next  practice  should  be  to  commence 
a  note  softly,  and  increase  it  gradually,  till  it  become  loud,  and 
then  to  begin  loud  and  to  end  soft.  This  is  a  most  important 
exercise  in  aid  of  a  right  management  of  the  voice. 

These  three  qualities  may  be  illustrated  by  school  songs,  and 
thus  the  style  of  singing  in  a  primary  school  much  improved. 
10 


218  SOUND. SECOND   STEP. 

Learning  pieces  of  poetry,  not  only  as  an  exercise  of  memory, 
but  also  of  intonation,  would  be  very  suitably  introduced  among 
lessons  on  sound. 

For  a  course  of  lessons  and  exercises  in  the  Third  Step,  as 
leading  to  music,  we  cannot  do  better  than  recommend  to  teachers 
the  use  of  the  "  Primary  School  Song  Book,"  by  Lowell  Mason 
and  Geo.  Jas.  Webb,  and  published  by  Mason  Brothers,  New 
York. 


LANGUAGE. 


INTRODUCTORY   REMARKS. 

ALTHOUGH  direct  and  systematic  lessons  on  language  are,  for 
the  most  part,  unsuited  to  a  primary  school,  much  may  still  be 
done  by  the  teacher  to  cultivate  the  habit  of  correct  speaking. 
To  this  end  care  must  be  taken  that  ideas  communicated  to  the 
children  are  conveyed  to  them  in  appropriate  terms,  and  that, 
when  giving  expression  to  their  own  thoughts,  they  do  so  in  cor- 
rect and  appropriate  language. 

In  carrying  out  these  objects,  the  following  points  deserve 
special  attention : 

1.  All  erroneous   expressions  made  use  of  by  the  children 
should  be  immediately  corrected,  and  the  proper  words  fixed  upon 
the  mind  by  repetition.     This  incidental  mode  of  teaching  is  the 
most  natural  and  simple  method  of  correcting  those  errors  in  lan- 
guage which  the  children  of  the  poor  acquire  at  their  homes,  and 
of  supplying  those  deficiencies  which  belong  to  their  as  yet  limited 
vocabulary. 

2.  In  the  daily  work  of  the  school  room,  all  definitions  of  the 
meaning  of  words,  and  all  descriptions  of  places,  objects,  or  events, 
whether  given  by  the  teacher  to  the  children,  or  elicited  from 
them,  should  be  clothed  in  simple  and  definite  language,  and  fixed 
in  the  memory  by  repetition.     A  double  object  is  thus  attained  ; 
the  mind  is  stored  with  knowledge  for  its  own  benefit,  and  fur- 
nished with  appropriate  language  in  which  to  convey  it  to  others. 

3.  The  children  should  be  trained  to  give  complete  answers  to 


220  LANGUAGE. 

all  questions  which  are  put  to  them.  Teachers  too  often  content 
themselves  with  such  answers  as  merely  indicate  that  the  child  is 
in  possession  of  the  idea  they  wish  to  convey,  without  caring  for 
the  clearness  or  otherwise  with  which  that  idea  is  expressed  ; 
whereas  experience  teaches  that  nothing  more  tends  to  make  an 
idea  clear  to  the  mind,  and  to  render  it  a  permanent  possession, 
than  the  act  of  clothing  it  in  accurate  language.  Monosyllabic 
answers,  as  "  Yes "  and  "  No,"  should  be  rejected,  except  when 
they  express  all  that  can  be  said  on  the  subject. 

Besides  the  above  incidental  mode  of  teaching  language,  which 
should  be  adopted  in  all  the  classes  of  a  primary  school,  the  fol- 
lowing exercises  are  given  for  the  special  use  of  children  from  six 
to  eight  years  of  age. 

The  following  exercises  in  Language  are  designed  as  Third 
Step  lessons : 

EXERCISE  I. 

To  form  sentences  from  given  words — (1)  the  name  of  an 
object,  (2)  a  word  expressing  quality,  and  (3)  some  part  of  the 
verb  "  to  be." 

Plan. — The  children  to  name  a  number  of  objects,  beginning, 
for  example,  with  those  of  the  various  articles  of  furniture,  &c.,  in 
the  room ;  the  teacher  to  write  these  names  under  each  other  on 
the  slate,  requiring  the  children  to  spell  each  word  as  it  is  written, 
assisting  or  correcting  when  necessary. 

The  children  to  be  then  required  to  say  something  regarding 
each  object,  the  teacher  helping  them  to  determine  how  far  the 
terms  they  apply  are  appropriate.  The  teacher  to  add  these  de- 
scriptions to  the  names  already  on  the  slate,  and  thus  lead  the 
children  on  to  the  formation  of  simple  sentences,  in  their  shortest 
form.  A  few  examples  follow  : 

The  ink  is  black. 
The  slate  is  smooth. 
The  form  is  long. 
That  window  is  large. 
This  pencil  is  sharp,  &c. 


LANGUAGE.  221 

The  children  should  then  read  over  the  sentences,  and  be  led 
to  observe  that  each  begins  with  a  capital  letter,  arid  ends  with  a 
full  stop.  The  slate  may  then  be  turned  away,  and  the  class  re- 
quired to  reproduce  the  lesson  on  their  own  slates,  without  its  aid. 
"When  this  has  been  done,  the  slate  should  be  again  referred  to, 
that  they  may  correct  their  exercises. 

The  children  may  be  supplied  with  little  books,  in  which  to 
write  out  these  lessons  at  home.  For  some  time  they  should  not 
be  required  to  originate  anything  for  themselves,  but  merely  to 
reproduce  that  which  has  been  taught  in  school.  They  will  find 
pleasure  in  doing  that  which  they  can  do  well. 

"When  all  the  objects  in  the  room  have  formed  the  subjects  of 
such  lessons,  those  in  the  playground,  the  street,  or  in  the  fields, 
may  be  resorted  to,  gradually  extending  the  circle  to  more  remote 
objects.  At  the  least  a  dozen  lessons  of  this  description  should  be 
given. 

EXERCISE  II. 

The  forming  of  contracted  sentences.  Of  these  there  are  two 
varieties  :  1.  That  in  which  different  qualities  are  ascribed  to  one 
and  the  same  object.  2.  That  in  which  the  same  quality  is  ascribed 
to  various  objects. 

First  kind :   The  describing  an  object  by  various  qualities. 

Plan. — The  teacher  writes  the  name  of  some  familiar  object 
upon  the  school  slate,  and  calls  upon  the  children  to  apply  it  to  its 
various  qualities,  writing  them  down  as  they  give  them.  The 
teacher  should  assist  the  children  in  determining  the  suitability  or 
otherwise  of  the  qualities  suggested,  and  also  in  spelling  the  more 
difficult  words. 

"We  may  suppose  a  lesson  in  which  the  given  name  is  "paper." 
It  would  present  itself  in  some  such  form  as  this : 

The  paper  is  white. 
The  paper  is  thin. 
The  paper  is  smooth. 
The  paper  is  pliable,  &c. 

The  teacher  should  next  lead  the  children  to  notice  that  the 


222  LANGUAGE 

word  "  paper"  need  only  be  written  once,  and  that  the  four  sen- 
tences may  be  contracted  into  one.  Then  the  teacher,  directed  by 
the  children,  writes : 

"  Paper  is  white,  thin,  smooth,  and  pliable." 

The  children  then  read  this  over,  and  are  led  to  perceive  the  ne- 
cessity for  commas  in  those  places  where  the  words  "the  paper  is" 
are  omitted,  and  also  the  use  of  the  word  u  and "  between  the  two 
last  words  of  the  sentence.  Lastly,  the  slate  is  turned  away,  and 
the  children  reproduce  and  correct  the  lesson,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
former  exercise. 

The  words,  chalk,  iron,  clay,  coal,  salt,  water,  air,  snow,  ice, 
sugar,  glass,  leather,  thread,  a  pen,  a  needle,  fire,  wopd,  &c.,  &c., 
are  suitable  for  lessons  of  this  kind.  The  children  may  be  encour- 
aged to  reproduce  such  lessons  at  home,  forming,  in  the  first  place, 
the  several  simple  sentences,  and  then  contracting  them  as  above 
suggested.  Two  or  three  such  exercises  will  generally  suffice  for 
one  lesson. 

Second  kind :    The  same  quality  attributed  to  several  objects. 

Plan. — A  quality  selected,  sentences  made,  contracted,  repro- 
duced, and  corrected,  as  above. 

Glass  is  brittle. 

Chalk  is  brittle. 

Coal  is  brittle. 
Glass,  coal,  and  chalk  are  brittle. 

Iron  is  hard. 

Flint  is  hard. 

Glass  is  hard,  &c. 
Iron,  flint,  and  glass  are  hard. 

The  children  to  be  led  to  notice  the  stops,  as  before,  and  the 
change  of  the  word  "  is"  for  "  are." 

Subjects  for  sentences  of  this  kind :  Black,  white,  light, 
heavy,  bright,  sweet,  sour  or  acid,  cold,  tough,  porous,  inflam- 
mable, soluble,  fusible,  pliable,  &c.,  &c. 


LANGUAGE.  223 


EXERCISE  III. 

An  exercise  on  discrimination  in  the  use  of  words. 

Select  an  object,  say  a  tree,  and  let  the  children  apply  to  it 
every  descriptive  term  that  they  can  think  of  as  applicable  to  any 
tree,  thus :  A  tree  may  be  young,  old,  tall,  short,  graceful,  stunt- 
ed, withered,  green,  bare,  branching,  large,  small,  smooth,  gnarled, 
fruit-bearing,  barren,  upright,  drooping,  &c. 

Then  let  them  select  all  the  terms  that  might  possibly  be  ap- 
plied to  any  one  tree,  and  thus  draw  out  a  description  of  two  or 
more  trees  from  the  above  list  of  attributes,  thus : 

The  tree  is  young,  small,  graceful,  green,  and  smooth ;  or, 

The  tree  is  old,  tall,  large,  branching,  and  fruit-bearing ;  or, 

The  tree  is  old,  short,  stunted,  withered,  gnarled,  and  barren. 

Subjects  for  these  exercises :  Flower,  man,  monkey,  house, 
sky,  river,  horse,  mountain,  book,  water,  an  apple,  &c. 

EXERCISE  IV. 

Following  the  order  in  which  a  lesson  on  an  object  is  usually 
given,  we  now  take  the  verb  "  Have ;"  and  the  children  are  re- 
quired to  form  sentences,  naming  the  parts  of  objects,  and  the 
number  of  those  parts  introducing  that  verb. 

1.  To  form  sentences,  describing  the  parts  of  objects,  without 
reference  to  their  number : 

The  tree  has  leaves.  A  bird  has  wings. 

The  cow  has  feet.  The  cube  has  faces. 

2.  Contracted  sentences  of  this  character : 

The  tree  has  branches. 
The  tree  has  leaves. 
The  tree  has  roots,  &c. 

Contracted — The  tree  has  leaves,  roots,  and  branches.  The 
contracted  form  may  be  at  once  adopted,  as  its  nature  is  under- 
stood from  previous  exercises. 


224:  LANGUAGE. 

3.  Sentences  in  which  the  several  parts  of  an  object  may  be 
distinguished  by  a  word  expressive  of  quality : 

The  cat  has  soft  feet. 

The  knife  has  a  sharp  point. 

The  cow  has  a  long  tail. 

4.  Sentences  in  which  the"  several  parts  of  an  object  may  be 
described  by  their  number  : 

The  cow  has  four  feet. 
The  cow  has  a  tail. 
The  cow  has  two  horns. 

Contracted — The  cow  has  four  feet,  two  horns,  and  a  tail. 

The  preceding  exercises  are  confined  to  objects  described  as  to 
their  qualities  and  their  parts,  and  only  one  example  of  each  is 
given;  but  the  teacher  will,  of  course,  take  care  that  the  children  have 
as  many  as  are  necessary.  We  now  proceed  to  sentences  which 
include  words  expressing  action  or  condition.  As  the  vocabulary 
of  the  children  at  this  stage  is  usually  very  limited,  it  is  desirable 
to  increase  the  stock  of  words  at  their  command.  This  may  be 
done  by  writing  out  lists  of  the  names  of  objects,  and  of  words 
expressive  of  actions.  Each  list  should  be  formed  of  words  which 
may  be  arranged  under  some  general  head,  itself  familiar  to  the 
children,  and  thus  the  principle  of  association  will  be  brought  to 
the  help  of  the  memory.  Rigid  classification  should  be  avoided, 
as  well  as  the  introduction  of  terms  difficult  of  explanation. 

The  children  may  be  assisted  in  drawing  up  lists  of  words  ex- 
pressive of  domestic  and  social  relationship,  of  trades,  occupations, 
and  professions,  or  of  the  names  of  quadrupeds,  birds,  fishes,  and 
insects ;  trees,  garden  vegetables,  fruits,  grain ;  minerals,  metals, 
and  liquids ;  articles  of  clothing,  household  furniture,  &c.  By 
way  of  variety,  the  children  may  be  required  to  name  the  objects 
they  have  seen  in  the  sky,  in  the  field,  or  on  the  river  ;  the  vari- 
ous goods  sold  in  a  grocer's  shop ;  the  tools  used  by  the  carpen- 
ter, the  shoemaker,  or  the  smith. 


LANGUAGE.  . %  225 

Similar  lists  of  words  descriptive  of  actions  should  be  made, 
beginning  with  those  describing  the  powers  and  capabilities  of  the 
several  organs  of  the  human  frame : 

The  hand — open,  shut,  hold,  catch,  grasp,  &c. 

The  foot — stand,  walk,  run,  stamp,  dance,  &c. 

The  mouth  and  voice — eat,  drink,  sip,  speak,  sing,  &c. 

The  eye  and  ear — look,  stare,  gaze,  listen,  hearken,  &c. 

This  may  also  be  extended  to  acts  of  the  mind ;  as,  think, 
study,  consider,  invent,  love,  hate. 

Actions  peculiar  to  specific  trades  and  occupations — cut,  stitch, 
sow,  plough,  reap,  mow,  bore,  saw,  &c. 

Actions  characteristic  of  certain  animals — walk,  trot,  gallop, 
fly,  swim,  crawl,  climb,  &c. 

Sounds  made  by  animals — sing,  bark,  neigh,  low,  bray,  croak, 
hum,  hiss,  &c. 

The  children  should  also  be  required  to  write  out  words  ex- 
pressing some  of  those  less  evident  actions  effected  in  plants ;  as, 
grow,  increase,  spread,  shelter,  fade,  wither,  &c. ;  or  those  applied 
to  liquids ;  as,  pour,  drop,  flow,  overflow,  &c.,  &c. 

The  following  remarks  point  out  how  such  lists  of  words  may 
be  made  so  as  to  give  them  interest : 

Suppose  the  children  required  to  make  a  list  of  insects.  Each 
of  the  children  in  turn  gives  the  name  of  an  insect,  which  is 
written  on  the  board.  When  they  can  remember  no  others,  the 
teacher  may  supply  the  names  of  any  familiar  insects  they  may 
have  overlooked.  The  board  may  then  be  covered,  and  the 
children  required  to  reproduce  them.  This  done,  the  list  may  again 
be  showed  them,  that  they  may  correct  errors  in  spelling,  and 
supply  any  words  they  may  have  omitted. 

These  lists  may  also  form  very  useful  lessons  for  home  work. 
In  correcting  them,  the  teacher  asks  the  first  child  in  the  class 
to  read  out  his  list,  writing  it  upon  the  board  as  he  does  so. 
Another  child  is  then  desired  to  mention  any  words  his  list  may 
contain  which  are  not  already  on  the  board.  The  same  plan  to  be 
adopted  with  the  other  children,  until  a  complete  copy  of  all  the 
names  the  children  have  noted  will  be  formed  upon  the  board. 
10* 


226  LANGUAGE. 

From  this  the  children  are  then  permitted  to  correct  their  errors 
in  spelling,  and  to  complete  their  several  lists  of  words.* 

Much  varied  information  may  be  given  to  the  children  in  con- 
nection with  the  new  words  they  learn  as  these  lessons  proceed  ; 
but  great  care  should  be  taken  that  the  lesson  on  language  is  not 
lost  sight  of  in  the  communication  of  this  general  information. 

EXERCISE  V. 

Sentences  containing  words  expressing  action.  I.  The  sub- 
ject and  the  action  complete  the  sense.  II.  An  additional  word 
is  required  to  complete  the  sense.  III.  Exercises  on  sentences 
of  both  these  classes. 

I.  Sentences  containing  a  word  expressive  of  an  act  which, 
with  its  subject,  makes  a  complete  and  significant  sentence. 

Plan. — The  teacher  writes  in  column  on  the  board  a  list  of 
words  expressing  actions ;  as,  stand,  walk,  run,  &c. ;  and  the  chil- 
dren, with  the  assistance  of  the  teacher,  form  these  into  sentences, 
by  the  addition  of  the  name  of  an  object,  animal,  &c.  They  are 
then  erased,  and  the  children  reproduce  the  exercise  without  help. 

1.  Sentences  where  the  subject  and  the  action  complete  the 
sense  : 

The  horse  stands. 
The  child  sleeps. 
The  scholar  sits. 

These  exercises  to  be  repeated,  putting  both  the  object  and 
the  act  in  the  plural  form : 

The  horses  stand. 
The  children  sleep. 
The  scholars  sit,  &c. 

The  actions  characteristic  of  animals,   and  the  sounds  they 
'  utter,  will  afford  great  variety  in  these  exercises  : 

*  It  is  not  necessary  that  any  large  number  of  lists  of  words  should  be  made 
before  proceeding  to  the  following  exercises.  The  object  is  to  furnish  with 
words,  and  the  teacher  may  resort  to  the  lists  whenever  the  introduction  of 
new  words  is  found  desirable. 


LANGUAGE.  227 

The  fish  swims. 
The  bird  flies. 
The  serpent  crawls. 
The  bee  hums. 
The  frog  croaks. 
The  dog  barks,  &c. 

II. — Sentences  in  which,  beside  the  subject  and  the  object,  an 
additional  word  is  required  to  complete  the  sense : 

I  hold — the  pencil. 

He  opens — the  book. 

The  monkey  climbed — the  tree,  &c.* 

The  children  should  be  led  to  see  the  necessity  for  each  addi- 
tional word. 

Actions  peculiar  to  trades  or  employments : 

The  gardener  digs — the  ground. 

The  tailor  cuts — the  cloth. 

The  carpenter  planes — the  wood,  &c. 

As  a  more  extended  exercise,  the  name  of  the  instrument  by 
which  an  act  is  performed  may  be  introduced  into  the  sentence : 

The  gardener  digs  the  ground  with  a  spade. 

The  tailor  cuts  the  cloth  with  scissors. 

The  grocer  weighs  sugar  with  a  pair  of  scales,  &c. 

"Words  expressing  quality  may  now  be  added  to  the  subject  or 
object ;  as, 

The  little  boys  play. 

The  bright  sun  is  shining. 

The  strong  old  horse  drew  the  heavy  wagon. 

Great  variety  may  be  given  to  these  lessons,  and  the  attention 
and  interest  of  the  children  well  sustained,  by  leading  them  to  try 

*  The  teacher  need  not  object  to  the  use  of  the  past  or  future  tense  of  the 
verb,  provided  the  children  use  it  correctly. 


228  LANGUAGE. 

to  find  out  how  many  qualifying  words  may  be  added  to  a  sen- 
tence, and  the  peculiar  force  of  each. 

EXERCISE  VI. 

In  the  exercises  which  follow,  the  children  are  led  to  observe 
and  describe  some  of  those  circumstances  which  are  connected 
with  various  actions,  and  ^so  identified  with  them  that  the  mention 
of  one  is  often  suggestive  of  another.  For  example,  such  sen- 
tences as,  The  fish  swims,  The  worm  crawls,  The  bird  flies,  which 
call  up  simultaneously  in  the  mind  the  ideas,  In  the  water,  On  the 
ground,  In  the  air. 

Combinations  such  as  these  are  simple,  and  readily  understood  ; 
those  of  a  more  abstract  nature  should  be  avoided.  There  should 
be  no  attempt  to  lead  where  the  children  cannot  follow. 

Sentences. 

The  children  sit  on  the  forms. 

Lions  live  in  forests. 

Ships  sail  on  the  ocean. 

The  leaves  fall  on  the  ground,  &c. 

Sentences  with  phrases  expressive  of  time: 
The  sun  rises  in  the  morning. 
We  prepared  our  lessons  last  night. 
The  birds  sing  in  the  morning. 
Dogs  bark  during  the  night,  &c. 

Sentences  with  words  expressing  the  manner  of  performing  an 
act: 

The  child  walks  slowly. 
The  dog  barks  loudly. 
The  lion  growls  fiercely. 
Jane  writes  neatly. 

As  an  example  of  the  manner  in  which  these  lessons  may  be 
varied,  we  give  the  following  sentences,  in  which  two  or  more  of 
the  preceding  circumstances  are  expressed : 


LANGUAGE.  229 

Place  and  Manner. — The  children  sit  quietly  at  the  desks,  &c. 
Time  and  Manner. — The  rain  fell  violently  during  the  night. 
Time  and  Place. — The  rooks  rest  all  night  on  the  trees. 

This  is,  perhaps,  as  far  as  it  is  desirable  to  lead  the  children  of 
an  infant  school  in  such  lessons  as  these.  The  subject  may  close 
with  an  example  showing  the  mode  in  which  two  or  more  of  the 
preceding  sets  of  exercises  may  be  combined  in  the  simple  descrip- 
tion of  an  object.  The  teacher  need  not,  however,  wait  till  the 
foregoing  exercises  have  been  finished  before  such  examples  are 
introduced. 

An  Apple,  described  as  to  its  qualities,  its  several  component 
parts,  its  mode  of  growth,  and  its  uses,  or  as  to  any  other  simple 
fact  connected  with  it. 

Exercises  1  and  2.  An  apple  may  be  round,  russet,  smooth, 
juicy,  odorous,  wholesome,  acid,  and  refreshing. 

Exercise  3.  It  has  a  stem,  a  rind,  or  outer  covering,  a  pulp 
inside  the  peel,  a  core,  and  seeds. 

Exercise  4.  It  grows  in  orchards  and  gardens ;  it  is  sold  at 
stalls  in  the  streets,  in  fruit  markets,  at  greengrocers'  shops,  and 
is  used  for  making  cider,  as  a  table  fruit,  and  for  making  apple 
pies. 

In  working  out  such  descriptions,  the  children  should  be  re- 
quired to  point  out  the  value  of  each  word,  and  to  state  what  it 
adds  to  the  description. 

Thus,  in  the  preceding  lesson,  the  word  round  describes  the 
shape  of  the  apple ;  the  word  russet,  the  color  of  it ;  the  word 
smooth,  the  nature  of  its  surface  ;  the  word  sweet,  its  taste ;  the 
word  wholesome,  the  effects  of  it  when  eaten  as  food,  &c. 

Treated  in  this  way,  the  lesson  becomes  truly  a  lesson  on  lan- 
guage. The  children  learn  to  distinguish  between  the  idea  and 
the  word  representing  it. 

Such  a  course  of  instruction  on  language,  given  in  connection 
with  objects,  insensibly  develops  the  perception  of  the  nature  of 
the  principal  words  or  parts  of  speech,  probably  better  than  could 
be  done  by  lessons  specially  directed  to  that  object  It  only 
remains  now  that  the  teacher  bring  the  subject  of  classification 


230  LANGUAGE. 

directly  before  the  children.  This  may  be  best  done  by  leading 
them  to  analyze  a  few  of  their  own  lessons,  arranging  the  words 
into  names,  words  expressing  actions,  qualities,  relations,  &c.  When 
this  has  been  done,  the  teacher  may  communicate  the  grammatical 
names  of  nouns,  verbs,  adjectives,  as  introductory  to  more  me- 
thodical lessons  on  grammar. 

Such  a  course  of  teaching  also  prepares  the  mind  for  gram- 
matical  analysis. 


READING. 


OTKODUCTOKY   KEMAKKS. 

THERE  is  perhaps  no  subject  of  school  study  that  has  pre- 
sented more  difficulties  to  the  minds  of  the  little  learners,  than 
Reading.  This  has  been  owing  very  much  to  the  manner  in 
which  it  has  been  usually  presented.  The  English  language  is 
full  of  difficulties;  and  if  we  introduce  the  child  to  them  all  at 
once,  we  shall  most  certainly  confuse  and  discourage  him. 

The  principles  of  Pestalozzi  so  prominently  insisted  upon,  that 
but  one  difficulty  should  be  presented  at  a  time — that  the  business 
of  the  teacher  is  analysis — that  all  difficulties  should  be  divided 
and  subdivided,  until  reduced  to  their  simple  elements — and  that 
the  work  of  the  infant  learner  is  synthetical,  are  peculiarly  appli- 
cable in  the  prosecution  of  this  subject. 

It  has  been  our  aim,  in  the  following  lessons,  to  treat  the  sub- 
ject in  conformity  to  these  principles.  We  claim  for  the  plan 
here  presented  the  following  advantages  : 

1.  It  puts  the  child  in  possession  of  a  key  by  which  he  is  able 
to  help  himself — a  very  important  principle  in  education. 

2.  It  is  an  excellent  disciplinary  exercise,  cultivating  accuracy 
of  observation  and  expression. 

3.  It  presents  but  one  difficulty  at  a  time,  and  thus  avoids  that 
confusion,  and  consequent  discouragement,  that  so  often  attend  the 
early  efforts  in  learning  to  read. 

4.  It  is  thorough.     By  means  of  a  progressive  arrangement 
and  classification,  it  puts  the  child  in  possession  of  a  knowledge 


232  HEADING. — FIRST    STEP. 

of  important  elements  in  the  English  language  that  are  often 
entirely  neglected. 

5.  The  plan  is  calculated  to  cultivate  clearness  of  articulation, 
and  lead  the  children,  by  easy  and  progressive  steps,  to  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  orthography  of  words. 

We  believe  it  to  be  an  easy,  thorough,  and  rapid  method  of 
learning  to  read  and  spell. 

A  set  of  cards  and  a  little  reading  book  have  been  prepared 
with  special  reference  to  accompanying  these  lessons,  which  we 
think  the  teacher  will  find  of  great  assistance. 


PHONIC    HEADING. 

FIRST     STEP. 

While  in  this  Step,  the  children  learn  to  distinguish  and  imi- 
tate forms,  and  to  distinguish  and  imitate  sounds.  To  each  charac- 
ter is  attached  but  one  sound.  We  first  begin  by  teaching  the 
children  to  recognize  the  forms  of  the  small  letters,  and  their  ap- 
propriate sounds.  For  this  purpose  we  use  both  the  large  and 
small  cards,  and  the  blackboard. 

Hold  before  the  class  a  small  card  with  the  small  letter  a  on  it. 
Ask  one  member  of  the  class  to  select  another  like  it  from  the 
table,  calling  upon  the  class  to  decide  as  to  the  correctness  of  the 
selection.  Ask  another  to  point  to  a  form  like  it  on  the  large 
card.  Let  other  members  of  the  class  select  other  forms  like  it 
on  the  card  and  on  the  table.  Teacher  makes  several  letters  on 
the  board  ;  the  children  decide  when  she  makes  this  letter.  The 
teacher  now  tells  the  children  that  this  is  a,  repeating  the  short 
sound  of  a*  Children  repeat  the  sound  several  times,  until  they 
can  all  give  it  correctly.  Different  members  of  the  class  are  called 
upon  to  select  as  many  letters  of  this  kind  from  the  table  and  card 
as  they  can  find,  always  repeating  the  sound  as  they  select  them. 

•*  The  short  sounds  of  the  vowels,  as  heard  in  hat,  pen,  pin,  hot,  hut,  the 
hard  sound  of  c  and  <7,  the  sound  of  x  as  heard  in  wax,  are  used  in  every  case 
in  this  Step ;  and  s  has  the  sound  of  c  soft,  as  heard  in  sent.  The  letter  k  is 
omitted.  The  names  of  the  letters  are  not  given  to  the  children  at  present. 


READING. FIRST   STEP.  233 

The  letter  t  is  next  presented,  and  treated  in  the  same  manner. 
The  children  are  then  shown  card  No.  5.  Teacher  points  to  the 
letter  a  on  this  card,  and  the  children  give  the  sound.  Teacher  re- 
peatedly points  to  these  letters,  and  the  children  give  the  sounds, 
each  time  pronouncing  them  in  more  rapid  succession,  until  they 
get  the  syllable  "  at,"  which  they  pronounce  repeatedly.  This  is 
as  much  as  can  be  accomplished  with  one  lesson. 

Either  at  this  point,  or  before  giving  the  above  lesson,  which 
perhaps  would  be  the  better  course,  let  the  children  learn  at  sight 
to  recognize  the  following  words,  as  an  aid  in  forming  short,  easy 
sentences,  as  we  proceed:  the,  is,  his,  this.  These  words  are 
found  on  both  the  large  and  small  cards,  and  may  be  treated  very 
much  in  the  same  way  as  in  learning  the  letters  a  and  t,  selecting 
cards  with  the  required  word  from  the  table  and  from  the  large 
card.  In  all  these  exercises,  the  class  should  be  called  upon  in 
every  case  to  decide  upon  the  correctness  of  the  selection,  or  work 
done  by  any  member. 

In  case  the  Reading  Cards  are  not  used,  the  work  may  be 
placed  on  the  blackboard  in  these  and  the  following  exercises. 
The  teacher  who  can  print  readily  will  be  likely  to  interest  her 
class  more  thoroughly  by  taking  this  course,  than  by  confining 
herself  closely  to  the  cards.  The  cards,  however,  will  be  found  a 
great  aid  to  the  teacher  in  indicating  the  exact  course  of  the  les- 
sons, and  in  supplying  a  collection  of  easy  sentences  adapted  to 
the  progress  of  each  lesson. 

In  the  next  lesson  the  children  learn  to  recognize  and  sound 
the  letters  m  and  c  (hard).  These  letters  are  treated  in  the  same 
manner  as  a  and  t,  combining  them  with  the  syllable  at.  Place 
this  syllable  upon  the  board,  and  let  the  children  analyze  and  pro- 
nounce it.  At  a  little  distance  from  it,  at  the  left,  place  the  letter  m, 
and  let  the  children  sound  it  as  pointed  to  ;  also  pronounce  the  syl- 
lable at.  Below,  and  a  little  nearer  each  other,  place  the  same  letter 
and  syllable,  and  let  the  children  sound  them  as  pointed  to,  more 
rapidly  than  before  ;  and  so  proceed  until  they  are  brought  into 
close  proximity,  and  they  pronounce  the  word  mat.  This  may  be 
repeated  several  times,  and  a  little  conversation  may  be  had  with 
the  children  about  a  mat ;  as,  How  many  ever  saw  a  mat  ?  "Where 


234:  BEADING. — FIEST   STEP. 

they  have  seen  it  ?  What  it  is  used  for  ?  &c.  In  all  these  early 
lessons  with  the  children,  the  meaning  of  each  new  word  should 
be  made  clear  to  them.  Proceed  in  the  same  way  with  c,  and  so 
with  all  the  succeeding  lessons. 

Should  there  be  any  difficulty  in  getting  the  children  to  repeat 
the  desired  sound  distinctly,  the  teacher  may  make  use  of  the  key 
word  used  in  forming  the  combinations  at  the  head  of  each  lesson, 
pronouncing  it  very  distinctly  several  times,  making  the  children 
repeat  it  after  her.  Next  pronounce  the  same  word,  emphasizing 
the  desired  sound,  requiring  the  children  to  listen,  to  observe  her 
lips,  and  then  to  imitate  her.  Next  separate  the  sound  from  the 
remainder  of  the  word,  and  pronounce  the  two  parts  distinctly, 
requiring  the  children  to  do  the  same.  Thus  they  will  be  led  to 
associate  the  power  of  the  letter  with  the  word,  and  may  make 
use  of  it  when  they  wish  to  recall  it. 

It  is  well,  when  the  power  of  a  consonant  has  been  learned  as 
an  initial  letter,  for  the  children  to  have  a  lesson  upon  the  same 
letter  when  it  is  a  terminal.  The  following  will  serve  as  a  plan 
that  may  be  continued  in  teaching  the  powers  of  all  the  conso- 
nants : 

The  teacher  makes  the  children  repeat  after  her  a  word  ending 
with  a  consonant,  the  power  of  which  she  wishes  them  to  learn. 
Supposing  it  to  be  the  power  of  m,  the  teacher  repeats  such  a 
word  as  jam,  emphasizing  the  letter  m.  Calls  upon  the  children 
to  listen,  to  observe  her  lips  as  she  finishes  the  word,  and  to  imi- 
tate her.  In  this  way,  if  possible,  lead  them  to  discover  for  them- 
selves what  the  sound  is  that  they  hear  at  the  end  of  the  word ; 
and  if  they  fail  to  give  it  correctly  alone,  repeat  it  for  them,  tell- 
ing them  that  it  is  the  power  of  the  letter  m  ;  and  when  they  wish 
to  remember  the  sound,  they  may  think  of  the  word  jam. 

By  way  of  exercise,  and  an  occasional  review  of  what  they 
have  learned,  the  teacher  points  to  or  prints  a  letter,  and  the  chil- 
dren give  the  sound ;  or  the  teacher  gives  the  sound  of  a  letter, 
and  the  children  either  print,  or  point  out  the  letter  which  has 
that  sound. 

The  letters  may  be  taken  up  in  the  following  order :  a,  t,  m, 
c,  b,  r,  h,  v,  /,  s,  d,  I,  p,  g}  n,  j]  w,  e,  i,  o,  x,  u,  y,  q,  and  z ;  and  the 


KEADIKG. — FIRST   STEP.  235 

combinations  ow,  oy,  and  ih,  may  be  added.  For  the  full  exem- 
plification of  the  methods  of  working  out  these  lessons,  as  also  for 
the  practice  in  reading,  see  u  Phonic  Reading  Cards." 

During  the  progress  of  these  lessons,  if  the  teacher  finds  the 
children  have  difficulty  in  distinguishing  the  letters  5,  ^>,  <?,  and  d, 
it  will  be  well  to  give  them  a  separate  lesson  on  these  letters.* 
The  following  may  serve  as  a  specimen  of  the  way  of  treating 
them : 

1.  Select  these  letters,  and  lead  the  children  to  observe  and 
describe  them  as  to  resemblance  and  difference.     They  are  alike, 
in  that  each  is  formed  of  one  straight  and  one  curved  line.     They 
are  unlike  in  the  position  of  these  lines.     The  first  is  formed  of 
two  lines — one  straight  and  vertical,  and  the  other  curved.     The 
curved  line  lies  to  the  right  of  the  vertical  line,  and  touches  it  at 
the  middle  and  base. 

2.  The  second  is  formed  of  two  lines,  as  the  first,  but  the 
curved  line  touches  the  straight  line  at  the  top  and  middle  on  the 
right  side. 

3.  The  third  has  the  curve  at  the  left  of  the  straight  line,  and 
touches  it  at  the  top  and  middle. 

4.  The  fourth  has  the  curve  at  the  left  of  the  straight  line, 
and  touches  it  at  the  middle  and  base. 

5.  EXERCISE. — Let  the  children  say  how  they  know  each  let- 
ter from  the   other  three.     Bid  them  put  the  letters  into  two 
groups — those  which  have  curves  at  the  top,  and  those  that  have 
curves  at  the  base.     "What  letters  have  curves  at  the  top,  and 
what  at  the  base  ?     Let  them  divide  again  into  those  that  have 
curves  at  the  right,  and  those  that  have  curves  at  the  left.    "Which 
letters  curve  to  the  right,  and  which  to  the  left  ?  &c.     How  p  is 
distinguished  from  q,  and  d  from  b. 

After  the  children  have  learned  to  recognize  all  the  small  let- 
ters, and  to  attach  to  each  its  appropriate  sound,  they  should  be 
taught  the  capital  letters,  which  they  will  be  able  to  describe  and 

*  Before  giving  this  lesson,  the  ideas  of  straight,  curved,  vertical,  and  base, 
should  be  developed  with  the  children,  for  the  method  of  which,  see  "  Lessons 
on  Form."  The  terms  long  and  short,  longer  and  shorter,  upward  and  down- 
ward, right,  left,  upper,  lower,  and  between,  if  not  already  familiar  to  the  chil- 
dren, should  be  developed. 


236  BEADING. FIRST   STEP. 

draw  upon  their  slates.     Before  commencing  these  lessons,  how- 
ever, it  will  be  well  to  have  the  following 

INTRODUCTORY    EXERCISES. 

Alphabetical  Forms  of  Capital  Letters. 

I. —  Comparison  of  Large  with  the  Small  Letters. — Let  the  chil- 
dren select  from  the  capital  letters  all  that  resemble  the  small  let- 
ters that  they  have  already  learned.  This  will  dispose  of  (7,  K, 
0,  P,  S,  U,  V,  W,  X,  F,  and  Z. 

II. — Next  take  some  letters  not  included  in  these,  which,  with 
reference  to  their  simplicity  in  making  and  describing,  may  be  pre- 
sented in  the  following  order  : 

1.  /,  L,  T,  F,  E,  H,  A,  N,  M,  straight  lined  letters. 

2.  (J),  6r,  curved  lined  letters. 

3.  -D,  B,  R,  Jj  straight  and  curved  lined  letters. 

4.  Interest  the  children,  by  asking  whether  they  would  not 
like  to  find  out  to  what  capitals  the  remaining  small  letters  belong  ? 

5.  Select  the  capital  /;  place  the  small  i  beside  it.     Give  the 
sound  of  short  i,  or  let  the  children  give  the  sound  of  the  small  i, 
and  then  tell  them  that  the  capital  has  the  same  sound,  and  let 
them  repeat  it,  and  describe  the  letter. 

6.  Proceed  in  the  same  way  with  L,  which  the  children  dis- 
tinguish as  being  formed  of  a  vertical  and  a  horizontal  line.     Pro- 
ceed thus  with  T. 

7. — Sketch  on  the  Letter  E. — The  following  sketch  may  serve 
as  a  pattern  of  the  way  in  which  each  of  the  capitals  may  be 
learned  and  described : 

Teacher  places  the  capital  E  beside  the  small  e,  and  calls  upon 
the  children  to  give  the  sound  of  small  e.  Tells  them  that  the 
large  letter  has  the  same  sound.  Children  repeat  it.  Calls  upon 
the  children  to  select  E  on  the  large  card ;  also  from  the  table ; 
to  find  as  many  large  JE's  as  they  can.  The  teacher  now  pro- 
vides the  children  with  strips  of  wood  or  pasteboard,  and  says, 
"  Make  this  letter."  *  The  teacher  asks,  "  How  many  lines  "in 

*  A  small  box  containing  both  curved  and  straight  strips,  for  this  purpose, 
can  be  obtained  of  the  Publisher. 


READING. — FIRST    STEP.  237 

your  El "  (remembering  to  use  the  short  sound  of  E,  and  not  the 
name).  Point  out  the  longest  line.  Tell  the  number  and  direc- 
tion of  all  the  lines.  Let  us  describe  E :  "It  is  formed  of  three 
straight  lines ;  the  longest  is  a  vertical  line,  and  the  two  shorter 
are  horizontal ;  the  two  horizontal  lines  touch  the  vertical  line  at 
the  top  and  base.  It  has  also  a  little  mark  in  the  middle  of  the 
vertical  line,  on  the  right  side." 

Description  of  the  Letter  D. — It  is  formed  of  two  lines,  one 
straight  and  vertical,  and  the  other  curved.  The  curved  line  lies 
to  the  right  of  the  vertical  line,  and  touches  it  at  the  top  and  bot- 
tom.* 

III. — 1.  EXERCISES. — Hold  up  the  small  letters,  and  let  the 
children  select  the  capitals  that  belong  to  them,  and  then  reverse 
this. 

2.  Let  the  children  give  the  sounds  of  the  large  letters  when 
pointed  to,  and  point  to  them  when  sounded. 

Imitating  Sounds  of  Letter s.\ 

During  the  progress  of  the  preceding  exercises  on  the  forms  and 
sounds  of  the  letters,  the  teacher  may  have  a  daily  drill  with  the 
children  in  imitating  the  sounds  of  the  letters,  without  any  refer- 
ence to  their  forms,  taking  them  in  the  following  order  (see  Card 
No.  4).  By  varying  the  key  on  which  these  sounds  are  given, 
sometimes  high,  and  again  low,  sometimes  at  a  shouting  pitch,  and 
again  in  a  whisper,  the  exercise  may  be  made  a  very  interesting 
and  pleasing  one. 

In  the  general  classification  of  sounds,  the  terms  vowel  and  con- 
sonant sounds  are  used. 


*  For  this  purpose  letters  without  ornament  should  be  used. 

t  The  teacher  will  observe,  that  in  these  exercises  no  reference  is  to  be 
made  to  the  forms  of  the  letters,  the  children  simply  imitating  the  sounds  as 
made  by  the  teacher. 


238  READING. FIRST    STEP. 

\ 

I. — VOWEL  SOUNDS,  OR  TONIC  ELEMENTS. 
Sketch  on  Long  Vowel  Sounds. 

1.  Pronounce  E,  A,  A  in  air,  A  in  far,  and  A  in  aw,  6,  oo. 
Children  repeat  each  sound  in  concert,  and  then  call  on  individual 
children  to  give  them. 

2.  Proceed  as  before  with  be,  Id,  bare,  far,  fall,  bo,  boo.    Chil- 
dren repeat  as  before. 

3.  Lead  the  children  to  notice  the  position  of  the  organs  of 
speech  in  making  these  sounds. 

II. — DOUBLE  VOWEL  SOUNDS. 
Sketch  on  Double  Vowel  Sounds. 

1.  Pronounce  i  in  pine,  u  in  tube,  oi,  ou.     Let  the  children 
repeat  the  sounds  in  concert,  till  they  can  say  them  in  order,  and 
then  individual  children  called  upon  to  go  over  them. 

2.  Pronounce,  and  exercise  the  children  in  pronouncing,  cy, 
dry,  try,  fly,  sky;  boy,  hoy,  joy,  cloy,  Troy  ;  bow,  cow,  now,  plow ; 
new,  dew,  lieu,  stew. 

III. — SHORT  VOWEL  SOUNDS. 

1.  Children  sound  these  after  the  teacher,  as  before.      The 
sounds  may  be  made  more  audible  by  repetition,  thus:    It,  it,  it; 
et,  et,  et ;   at,  at,  at ;    ot,  ot,  ot ;   ut,  ut,  ut,  as  in  put ;  ut,  ut,  ut,  as 
in  nut. 

2.  Exercise  the  children  on  other  words  containing  the  same 
sounds. 

IV. — CONSONANT  SOUNDS. 
1.  Subtonic  Elements. 

1.  Pronounce  mat,  mat,  mat,  emphasizing  m.  Children  re- 
peat, &c.  So  proceed  with  net,  lamb,  rat,  ding.  In  the  last  word 
let  the  last  sound  ng  be  emphatic.  Continue  to  exercise  the  chil- 


BEADING.  —  FIRST   STEP.  239 

dren  on  these  elements,  as  directed  with  the  vowel  sounds.     Pro- 
ceed in  the  same  manner  with  the  remaining  subtonic  elements, 
d  V  w  z  in  zea/l  an<^  z  in  azure>  an(i  th  in  thine. 


2.  Atonic  Elements. 

Sketch  on  the  Aspirate  h.  —  (a)  Sound  the  long  vowels  first 
without  and  then  with  the  aspirate  ;  as,  e,  d,  a  in  air,  a  in  far,  and 
a  in  aw,  6,  00,  he,  hd,  hair,  hah,  haw,  ho,  how. 

Lead  the  children  to  notice  what  they  do  in  pronouncing  the 
second  line  ;  viz.,  breathe  forcibly  at  the  commencement  of  each 
word. 

(Z>)  Exercise  the  children  in  the  same  way  on  the  double 
vowel  sounds  ;  as,  i,  u  (sound  as  heard  in  tune),  oi,  ou,  hi,  hu,  hoi, 
hou.  In  the  same  way,  if  necessary,  proceed  with  the  short  vowel 
sounds. 

(c)  Utter  the  vowel  sounds,  requiring  them  to  give  them  aspi- 
rated ;  then  pronounce  the  vowel  aspirated,  requiring  the  children 
to  drop  the  aspirate. 

Proceed  with  the  remaining  atonic  elements  as  with  the  sub- 
tonic,  viz.  :  p,  t,  k,  f,  c  in  nice,  tch  in  fetch,  th  in  youth,  ci  in 
vicious. 

Pronounce  such  words  as  pull,  tin,  kill,  fan,  celery,  &c.,  repeat- 
ing each  word  several  times,  making  the  first  letter  emphatic. 
Let  the  children  repeat  the  words  after  the  teacher,  and  then  the 
sounds.  Lead  the  children  to  discover  the  difference  between  the 
subtonic  and  the  atonic  elements,  not  using,  however,  these  terms. 
They  will  discover  that  in  making  one,  there  is  a  tone,  and  in  the 
other  there  is  not.  To  lead  them  to  this,  sound  them  in  connec- 
tion ;  as,  bale,  b,  pale,  p.  Repeat  them  one  after  the  other.  So 
take  d  and  t,  g  and  c  hard,  /  and  v,  th  in  thin  and  th  in  thine,  s  in 
seal  and  z  in  zeal,  ch  in  chest  or  tch  in  fetch,  and  j  in  jest,  sh  in  shall, 
and  z  in  azure.  (These  are  sometimes  classed  as  sharp  and  flat; 
the  sharps  being  the  atonic  elements,  as  p,  f,  t,  &c.,  and  the  flats 
being  the  subtonic  elements,  as,  b,  v,  d,  &c.) 

Give  them  these  sounds,  both  subtonic  and  atonic,  indiscrimi- 
nately, and  let  the  children  classify  them  as  those  having  a  tone, 
and  those  having  no  tone. 


240  BEADING. SECOND    STEP. 

Let  the  children  give  sounds  of  the  class  called  for,  as  "  those 
having  a  tone,"  and  "  those  having  no  tone." 

Y. — EXERCISES  ON  THE  SUBTONIC  AND  ATONIC  ELEMENTS,  WITH 

REFERENCE  TO  THE  ORGANS  OF  SPEECH. 

When  the  children  can  perfectly  imitate  the  sounds,  direct 
attention  to  the  organs  of  speech  used  in  forming  them.  Let  the 
children  discover  which  are  formed  by  the  lips  almost  entirely ; 
which  by  the  tongue  with  or  near  the  teeth ;  which  by  the  palate 
and  throat. 

VI. — ORDER  OF  SOUNDS. 

Any  word  which  contains  a  certain  sound  chosen  by  the 
teacher,  to  be  distinctly  pronounced  by  her.  Children  to  decide 
whether  the  sound  comes  first,  middle,  or  last. 

VII. — RHYMES. 

1.  Exercise  the  children  in  repeating  lists  of  words  or  sylla- 
bles that  rhyme,  after  the  teacher  ;  as. 

Long  vowels :  me,  be,  te,  ive,  he,  &c. ;  ha}  ma,  ra,  sa,  pa,  &c. ; 
lone,  cone,  tone,  known,  &c. 

List  of  rhymes  containing  double  vowels ;  as,  fine,  tune,  coy, 
&c.  Also  short  vowels,  as,  lip,  nop,  &c.,  should  be  repeated 
slowly,  loudly,  softly,  &c.,  according  to  direction. 


SECOND    STEP. 

In  this  Step  the  children  will  be  introduced — 

1.  To  words  containing  the  long  sounds  of  the  vowels,  to- 
gether with  a  few  words  which  are  to  be  learned  at  sight,  contain- 
ing different  sounds  of  the  vowels ;   to  words  containing  silent  let- 
ters ;  also  the  sound  of  k,  and  the  two  sounds  of  c  and  s. 

2.  To  words  formed  with  more  than  one  consonant  initial  or 
terminal. 

3.  In  this  Step,  also,  the  teacher  will  see  that  the  children 
learn  the  names  of  the  letters. 


BEADING. — SECOND   STEP.  241 

In  writing  out  this  Step,  the  teacher  must  at  first  be  prepared 
to  furnish  most  of  the  examples ;  but  soon,  and  often  surprisingly 
soon,  the  children  will  relieve  her. 

At  first  the  children  will  perhaps  be  inclined  to  give  non-sig- 
nificant words ;  but  they  must  be  encouraged  to  give  significant 
words. 

Accompanying  the  Reading  Cards  is  a  little  book,  which  may 
in  this  Step  be  put  into  the  hands  of  the  children. 

Over  these  lessons,  both  on  the  cards  and  in  the  books,  printed 
in  different  type,  are  words  containing  different  sounds  of  the 
vowels,  and  other  combinations  than  those  to  which  their  atten- 
tion has  been  called,  which  may  be  taught  in  the  same  way  as  the 
words  at  the  beginning  of  the  First  Step.  To  aid  in  this,  both 
large  and  small  cards  have  been  prepared,  containing  these  words. 
Before  the  children  are  introduced  to  a  new  lesson,  they  should  be 
made  familiar  with  these  words,  so  that  they  can  readily  pronounce 
them  at  sight.  These  may  be  treated  in  the  same  way  as  the 
words  at  the  commencement  of  the  First  Step. 

PLAN  TO  BE  USED  IN  READING  FROM  BOOKS. 

FIRST  LESSON. —  Object  to  secure  Fluency  and  Accuracy. 

I. — Word  by  word. 

1.  The  teacher  first  pronounces  a  word,  the  children  the  next, 
and  so  on.     Then  reverse  the  order. 

2.  Any  words  that  have  any  peculiarity  in  spelling  selected, 
and  put  upon  the  board ;  sounds  distinguished ;  silent  letters  no- 
ticed. 

II. — Clause  by  clause. 

1.  Read  each  clause,  as  word  by  word. 

2.  Attention  paid  to  pronunciation. 

III. — Simultaneous  reading. 

1.  "Word  by  word.     - 

2.  Clause  by  clause. 

3.  Sentence  by  sentence. 

IV. — Individual  children  selected  to  read  the  paragraph.    The 
11 


24:2  READING. SECOND   STEP. 

teacher  should  select  the  poorest  reader,  except  sometimes  when 
she  takes  the  best  as  an  example  to  the  class. 


SECOND  LESSON. —  Object  to  secure  Intelligent  Reading. 

I. — 1.  Teacher  and  children  read,  as  before,  sentence  by  sen- 
tence. 

2.  Children  questioned  on  the  meaning  of  difficult  words;  the 
board  used. 

II. — When  two  or  three  paragraphs  have  been  read,  the  sub- 
stance of  each  is  drawn  from  the  children,  and  an  abstract  put 
upon  the  board. 

III. — General  questions.  Object  of  the  lesson ;  moral,  if  any. 
"What  they  have  gained  from  the  lesson  ?  &c.,  &c. 

SILENT    LETTERS. 

At  this  point  in  the  Step  we  may  call  the  attention  of  the  chil- 
dren to  the  fact  that  some  words  have  letters  that  are  not  sounded. 
At  present,  however,  these  words  are  not  presented  systematically 
in  classes,  but  the  attention  of  the  children  is  called  to  the  fact  of 
these  silent  letters,  and  a  few  miscellaneous  examples  given,  such 
as  will  occur,  or  have  already  occurred  in  their  reading  lessons. 

The  following  will  answer  as  a  sketch,  to  show  the  way  in 
which  these  may  be  treated,  both  at  this  point  and  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  Step,  when  they  are  more  fully  discussed. 

1.  Write  on  the  board,  well,  ill,  bill,  fill,  will,  dell,  mill,  have, 
copse,  live,  cock,  lock,  dock,  Dick,  stick,  trick,  lick,  mess,  dress,  press, 
less,  &c. 

2.  Let  the  children  sound  separately  every  letter  in  bill ;  then 
give  the  number  of  sounds,  and  point  out  the  letter  to  which  no 
sound  is  attached.     Give  the  term  silent.     Proceed  thus  with  at 
least  one  of  each  of  the  class  put  on  the  board.     Let  the  children 
cross  out,  but  not  rub  out,  the  silent  letters  in  each. 

3.  Exercise  the  children  in  other  words  containing  silent  let- 
ters as  they  occur  in  their  reading  lessons,  observing  this  sugges- 
tion, however,  to  have  these  exercises  previous  to  reading  the  les- 


READING. — SECOND   STEP.  243 

son.  Many  examples  of  this  kind  will  occur  after  they  are  intro- 
duced to  words  containing  the 

LONG   VOWEL   SOUNDS. 

The  following  sketches  will  illustrate  the  method  of  treating 
these  sounds  : 

1.  Write  mad  upon  the  board.     Children  analyze  it,  and  give 
the  vowel  sound.     To  the  right  of  it  write  made,  and  treat  it  in 
the  same  way. 

2.  Develop  the  idea  of  short  and  long,  by  reference  to  the  time 
it  takes  to  pronounce  mad  and  made.      Get  examples  of  each 
sound. 

3.  Give  examples,  and  let  the  children  distinguish  the  vowel 
sounds,  and  decide  which  are  long,  and  which  are  short. 

4.  E,  I,  0,  and  W,  may  be  treated  in  a  similar  way. 

K,  the  Hard  and  Soft  Sounds  of  C,  and  the  Two  Sounds  of  S. 

1.  Place  the  letter  k  upon  the  board.  Give  the  sound,  and 
ask  the  children  whether  they  have  ever  heard  this  sound  before  ? 
Ask  them  to  select  a  letter  which  has  this  sound.  If  they  fail  to 
find  it  from  the  card,  place  several  letters  on  the  board,  and  among 
them  the  letter  c,  and  ask  them  to  select  the  letter  that  has  this 
sound.  Now  place  upon  the  board,  in  opposite  or  parallel  col- 
umns, lists  of  words  having  k,  and  the  hard  sound  of  c ;  as, 

cat          can         cup 

kill         kind        kid,  &c. 

Let  them  pronounce  the  two  lists,  and  give  the  sounds  in  each. 
Give  a  further  list  of  words  having  the  letter  k,  and  let  the  chil- 
dren give  the  sounds ;  such  as,  hark,  lark,  lank,  sank,  kind,  &c. 

2.  Hard  and  Soft  Sounds  of  C. 

Sketch. — Develop  the  idea  by  comparing  such  words  as  cat, 
cut,  copse,  cold,  can,  with  cedar,  cell,  cinder,  cider.  Give  the  terms 
hard  and  soft.  The  children  see  that  the  hard  sound  is  like  k,  and 
the  soft  is  like  s. 


244  BEADING. SECOND   STEP. 

3.  Let  the  class,  in  training,  give  a  sketch  of  the  two  sounds 
of  s,  as  of  c  hard  and  soft,  as  it  may  be  treated  in  the  same  gen- 
eral way. 

It  would  be  well,  at  this  point,  to  have  some  exercises  with 
the  children  on  the  card,  on  which  are  arranged  words  such  as 
actually  occur  in  their  reading  lessons,  having  the  long  and  short 
sounds  of  the  vowels,  silent  letters,  the  hard  sound  of  c  as  ex- 
pressed by  c  and  k,  the  soft  sound  of  c,  and  s  subtonic  and  atonic ; 
the  children  analyzing  the  words,  indicating  the  silent  letters,  the 
different  sounds  of  c  and  s  by  the  terms  suggested. 

In  the  following  lessons  the  teacher  may  make  use  of  the 
names  of  the  letters  in  speaking  of  the  various  consonants.  This 
will  probably  be  sufficient  to  familiarize  the  children  with  their 
names.  If  the  teacher,  however,  should  find  this  not  effective, 
methods  similar  to  those  used  in  teaching  the  words  at  the  heads 
of  the  reading  lessons  may  be  adopted. 


DOUBLE    INITIAL    CONSONANTS. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  method  of  treating  these  lessons,  we 
subjoin  a  report  of  a  lesson  actually  given : 

Bl  Initial. 

1.  The  teacher  wrote  these  letters  on  the  board,  and  exercised 
the  children  in  sounding  them. 

2.  The  teacher  desired  the  children  to  find  words  beginning 
with  II.     As  they  hesitated,  she  wrote  on  the  board,  blot,  bless, 
black. 

3.  Children  gave  other  examples,  viz. :    bland,  blank,  blind, 
blink,   blab,   bladder,  blose,  blister,  block,  blanket,  bloss,  blood,  blote, 
blick. 

4.  The  children  not  being  able  to  think  of  any  more  words 
with  these  combinations,  the  teacher  rubbed  out  all  those  that  had 
no  meaning.     She  also  rubbed  out  other  words  which  she  had  not 
time  to  explain,  leaving  about  ten  words  on  the  board. 

5.  She  required  the  children  to  give  the  meaning  of  these, 


READING. SECOND    STEP.  245 

supplying  the  meaning  of  those  they  did  not  know.     In  the  after- 
noon, the  children  copied  this  list  of  words  on  their  own  slates. 


Sketch  on  the  Initiate  Sc. 

1.  Sc  written  on  the  board.     Children  name  and  sound  it. 

2.  Exercised  in  finding  words  with  this  commencement ;  as, 
scan,  scot,  scum,  scatter,  &c.     They  will  probably  give  words  with 
other  than  short  and  long  vowels ;  as,  scar,  scald,  &c.    These  should 
be  added  to  the  list ;  but  should  they  give  words  having  the  sound 
of  sc,  but  spelled  differently,  as  skip,  skin,  the  teacher  should  put 
them  in  another  column,  and  direct  their  attention  to  the  difference 
in  spelling.     Children  questioned  on  the  meaning  as  before. 

3.  Children  print  on  their  own  slates  all  the  words  they  can 
remember  beginning  with  sc ;  also  with  sk. 

Sketch  on  Ld  and  Lt. 

The  teacher  writes  told  on  the  board,  and  directs  the  attention 
of  the  children  to  the  last  two  sounds.  Children  exercised  as 
before,  and  list  made  out ;  as, 

Id — held,  gild,  weld,  hold,  told,  scold. 
It — hilt,  gilt,  melt,  felt,  salt. 

Should  the  children  give  such  words  as  heaVd,  seaVd,  smiVd, 
these  should  be  written  in  another  column,  and  the  children  led  to 
notice  the  apostrophe,  and  shown  that  such  words  are  usually 
spelled  with  e,  and  thus  end  with  ed.  If  we  leave  out  the  e,  we 
must  put  the  little  mark  in  its  place. 

The  above  sketches  will  answer  as  models  after  which  future 
lessons  in  this  Step  may  be  given. 

The  teacher  will  observe  that  in  all  the  following  exercises 
only  a  few  words  are  given  under  each  head  as  examples.  The 
children  will,  of  course,  produce  many  more  words  of  each  class. 

Subject-matter  of  lessons  to  be  given  in  this  Step : 


24:6 


BEADING. SECOND   STEP. 


I. — Terminal  Diphthongs. 


aw 

ow 

ew 

ay 

oy 

caw 

bow  i 

f        few 

day 

boy 

raw 

cow 

mew 

may 

coy 

taw 

vow 

new 

pay 

j°y 

paw 

now 

dew 

hay 

toy 

II—  1. 

Two  Initial  Consonants. 

11 

Ir 

cl 

cr 

dr 

block 

brick 

clod 

crab 

drag 

bliss 

brink 

clinch 

crib 

drip 

black 

bran 

cliff 

crock 

drop 

dw 

fl 

ft 

pi 

pr 

dwell 

flock 

frog 

plug 

prop 

dwindle 

flint 

frock 

plum 

press 

dwarf 

flag 

frisk 

plant 

print 

sc 

sJc 

si 

sm 

sn 

scum 

skim 

slip 

smell 

snap 

scant 

skull 

slop 

smack 

snag 

scud 

skip 

sled 

smut 

snug 

sp 

st 

sw 

tr                tw 

qu 

spill 

stand 

swing 

tramp         twang 

quit 

split 

step 

swell 

trip              twill 

quill 

spent 

stick 

swam 

trot             twist 

quilt 

2.   Two  Terminal 

Consonants. 

Ib 

Id 

nd 

ff                V 

ck 

elb 

gild 

wind 

cliff             pelf 

brick 

bulb 

weld 

band 

puff            self 

crick 

sold 

rend 

scoff            gulf 

track 

IJc 

nk 

sJc 

11                Im 

sm 

elk 

ink 

task 

drill             elm 

prism 

silk 

think 

frisk 

dill              helm 

chasm 

sulk 

sink 

mask 

till              realm 

ism 

BEADING. SECOND    STEP. 


247 


IP 

mp 

sp 

ct 

st 

help 

cramp 

lisp 

act 

most 

yelp 

stamp 

wisp 

fact 

post 

pulp 

romp 

crisp 

sect 

rust 

U 

nt 

st 

ss 

hilt 

went 

west 

fuss 

melt 

sent 

rest 

muss 

felt 

bent 

best 

loss 

ft 

draft 
drift 
loft 


NOTE. — The  words  are  still  to  be  spelled  by  sound,  but  as  the 
children  become  familiar  with  the  names  of  the  letters,  they  may 
be  spelled  by  names  of  the  letters  also. 

III. — 1.   Three  Initial  Consonants. 


scr 
scrap 
screw 
scratch 

spr 
spring 
spry 
spread 

sir 
string 
strong 
strung 

spl 
split 
splint 
splash 

squ 
squib 
squint 
squills 

ar 

star 
far 


2.  Miscellaneous  Terminals. 


or 
for- 
nor 


ur 
fur 
bur 


arl 

snarl 
marl 


oil 
broil 
toil 


url 

curl 

furl 


arm 

orm 

ume 

am 

own 

one 

farm 

worm 

fume 

cram 

crown 

tone 

warm 

storm 

exhume 

ham 

drown 

lone 

urn 

rb 

rd 

rf 

rJc 

rl 

turn 
burn 

herb 
curb 

hard 
card 

serf 
turf 

lurk 
bark 

girl 
pearl 

rp 
harp 
carp 

rt 
part 
cart 

ng 
song 
wrong 

fly 
ply 

sion 
mission 
session 

tion 
motion 
notion 

IV. — Recapitulation  of  Initials. 

sc,  scr,  sk,  bl,  cl,  fl,  gl,  pi,  si,  spl,  sm,  sn,  sp,  cr,  scr,  dr,  fr,  gr, 
pr,  spr,  str,  tr,  st,  qu,  squ,  dw,  tw,  sw,  wh. 


24:8 


BEADING. SECOND    STEP. 


V. — Recapitulation  of  Terminals. 

ck,  ct,  fij  ft,  Ib,  Id,  If,  Ik,  11,  1m,  Ip,  It,  mp,  nd,  ng,  nk,  nt,  rb,  rd, 
rf,  rk,  rl,  rm,  rn,  rp,  rt,  sk,  sm,  sp,  ss,  st,  ly,  sion,  tion,  ar,  or,  ur, 
oil,  ume,  am,  one. 

In  conclusion,  give  a  few  lessons  on  the  same  combinations 
used  both  as  initial  and  terminal ;  as,  sk,  sm,  sp,  st,  &c. 

Let  the  children  give  any  words  containing  one  or  more  of 
these  combinations.  Place  them  on  the  board,  and  let  the  chil- 
dren classify  them. 


INITIAL. 
skip 
skin 
skate 
sketch 


TERMINAL. 

ask 
musk 
risk, 
task,  &c. 


Silent  Characters. 

The  following  lists  of  words  containing  silent  letters  may  be 
treated  as  per  sketch  given  on  page  242,  illustrating  a  method  of 
teaching  words  having  silent  letters  : 


9 

gnat 

gnaw 

gnash 


1.  Initial  Silent  Consonants. 


P 


h 

herb  knife       psalm 

heir 

hour 


w  w 

whole  wrong 

knob       ptarmigan       who  write 

knot       psalter  whoop  wring 


2.    Central  Silent  Consonants. 

b                    c  c                  d                 d                   g 

debt  fickle  victuals  pledge    handsome  sign 

doubt  scent  indict  lodge      handkerchief  reign 

subtle  muscle  pickaxe  judge      Wednesday  deign 

h                  h  h                h               gh               I 

ghost  rhomb  Thames  scheme        light  talk 

ghast  rhubarb  Thomas  school          height  stalk 

ghaut  rhyme  asthma  schooner      naughty  folk 


READING. SECOND    STEP.  249 

I                       p                      t                        t                       W  $ 

calm            tempt          castle          pitch           answer  isle 

palm            receipt        often           hitch           sword  aisle 

balm            symptom    chestnut     match         toward  viscount 


3.  Terminal  Silent  Consonants. 

b                           k                            gh  h 

lamb  wick                      plough  Sarah 

comb  dock                      though  verandah 

plumb  lock                      sigh  burgh 


4.  Central  Silent  Vowels. 

e                             i  u 

open                     marriage  build 

listen                     carriage  gauge 

risen                     tarried  guilt 


5.  Terminal  Silent  E. 

ce  lie  cle  die  fle 

nice  able  uncle  handle  baffle 

rice  fable  treacle  saddle  snuffle 

peace  warble  circle  riddle  ruffle 

gle  He  pie  .    tie  te 

eagle  freckle  ripple  tattle  etiquette 

wriggle          sprinkle  cripple  rattle  brunette 

struggle         tickle  supple  battle  coquette 

6.  Terminal  Silent  ue. 

ue  ue 

league  grotesque 

plague  opaque 

tongue  picturesque 


11* 


250  READING. THIRD    STEP. 

THIRD    STEP. 

Ambiguities. 

The  children,  while  in  this  Step,  learn  to  distinguish  the  con- 
sonants, subtonic  and  atonic,  and  to  consider  the  various  and 
anomalous  sounds  of  vowels  and  diphthongs ;  also  g  hard  and 
soft. 

At  this  Step  children  may  be  introduced  to  reading  books, 
such  as  are  ordinarily  used  in  schools  of  this  grade,  having  no 
reference  to  a  classification  of  sounds. 

Consonants. 

"We  have  already  considered  the  different  sounds  of  c  and  s. 
The  remaining  consonants  to  be  considered  are  #,  th,  ph,  gh,  ck,  z, 
and  x. 

1.  G ;  also  Th,  Hard  and  Soft. — Treat  this  in  the  same  way 
as  c  hard  and  soft,  giving  lists  of  words ;  as, 

Hard:    Gilbert  getting  unguent 

Soft:      gipsy  George  pungent,  &c. 

Hard :    thin  think  truth 

Soft:      thou  thine  thus,  &c. 

2.  Ph.     Sketch. — Words  containing  this  combination  written 
and  sounded. 

Children  recognize  the  sound  as  expressed  by  f.  Words  are 
given,  which  the  children  classify  ;  as,  -* 

physic  sphere  tough 

phonic  camphor  triumph 

photograph          orphan  seraph 

»  As  a  second  lesson,  the  children  may  be  employed  in  finding 
•proper  names  containing  this  sound.  Names  spelled  with  / 
should  be  put  in  a  separate  column. 

INITIAL.  CENTRAL.  TERMINAL. 

Phebe  Humphrey  Joseph 

Philip  Alphonso  Ralph 

Phillis  Sophia  Adolph 

Phipps  Euphemia  Guelph 


BEADING. THIRD    STEP.  251 

3.  Gh. — Proceed  in  a  similar  way  with  words  having  this 
combination ;  as,  cough,  laugh.     Compare  these  with  words  hav- 
ing gh  silent,  as,  plough,  lough,  &c. 

4.  Sound§  of  Ch. — Children  give  words  containing  the  sound 
of  ch  called  for  by  the  teacher,  which  will  stand  on  the  board  thus : 

English.  French.            Hard.  English  Ch  Classified. 

child  chaise  Christmas  INITIAL.      TERMINAL. 

china  chivalry  chord  child             watch 

church  chandelier  chaldron  chip             match 

French  Ch  Classified.  Ch  Hard  Classified. 

INITIAL.  TERMINAL.  INITIAL.  CENTRAL. 

'    chagrin  blanche  character  ache 

chamois  barouche  chasm  echo 

champagne  mustache  chaos  scholar 

5.  Z. — In  teaching  the  sound  of  this  letter,  proceed  as  in 
teaching  the  sound  of  k,  with  this  exception,  that  the  children 
will  now  select  their  own  words  as  examples.     If  they  hesitate  hi 
doing  this,  it  is  only  necessary  to  get  from  them  a  variety  of  words 
containing  this  sound,  some  of  which  will  be  likely  to  contain  the 
desired  examples,  which  may  be  arranged  in  columns,  and  com- 
pared ;  as, 

is  his  arise  risen 

zeal  zinc  zounds  zany 

Let  the  children  add  as  many  words  as  they  can  in  which  s  has 
the  sound  of  z. 

It  will  be  well  also  to  compare  such  words  as 

azure  glazier 

assure  sugar 

They  will  discover  that  both  z  and  s  have  here  different  sounds 
than  in  the  former  list.  Let  them  decide  which  has  a  tone,  and 
which  has  not.  They  will  give  many  examples  in  which  this 
sound  is  represented  by  s ;  as,  osier,  crosier,  treasure,  usual,  vision, 
&c.  Observe,  in  fact,  that  it  is  more  frequently  represented  by  s 
than  z.  Practice  them  in  interchanging  these  elements,  pronounc- 
ing azure  as  asure  (ashure),  sure  as  zure,  &c. 


252  BEADING. THIKD   STEP. 

I. — Sketch  on  the  Letter  IK. 

1.  Various  examples  of  words  containing  x  given.     Children 
examine  these,  and  discover  that  x  has  the  sound  of  ks. 

2.  Teacher  gives   other  examples ;    as,   anxious,  complexion, 
luxury.     Children  discover  that  the  sound  here  is  ksk.     Classify, 
putting  in  separate  columns  the  words  having  these  two  sounds ; 

as, 

Jcs  ksh 
mixture  luxury- 
exhaust  fluxions 

It  may  be  well,  at  this  point,  to  review  some  exercises  that 
have  been  slightly  passed  over. 

II. — Sketch  on  D  as  T. 

1.  Let  the  children  sound  d  repeatedly.     Ask  them,  with  the 
organs  in  position  for  sounding  d,  to  utter  it  without  a  tone. 
They  will  discover  that  it  is  the  sound  of  t.     Let  them  give  ex- 
amples of  both,  and  classify  them  ;  as, 

INITIAL.  CENTRAL.  TERMINAL. 

din         tin      •  udder       utter  nod     not 

den         ten  madder    matter  shod  shot 

dinner    tinner  ladder      latter  trod    trot 

The  teacher  may  use  the  terms  subtonic  and  atonic  ;  or,  if  pre- 
ferred, sharp  and  flat. 

2.  In  the  same  manner  take  b  and  p,  g  and  k,  v  and  /  th  in 
thine  and  th  in  thin,  z  in  zeal  and  s  in  seal,  j  in  jest  and  ch  in 
chest,  z  in  azure  and  sh  in  shall,  g  in  go  and  k  in  kid. 

The  subtonics  are  d,  b,  g,  v,  th  in  thine,  z  in  zeal,  z  in  azure,  g 
in  go. 

The  atonies  are  t,  p,  k,  f,  th  in  thin,  s  in  seal,  ch  in  chest,  sh, 
and  k. 

III. — 1.  In  reviewing  c  hard  and  soft,  introduce  examples  of 
c  before  e,  i,  and  y. 

2.  Soft  sound  of  g,  as  expressed  by  j  in  jelly,  just,  Joseph.  In 
seeking  for  examples  of  this  sound,  the  children  may  possibly  give 


KEAD1.NG. THIRD   STEP.  253 

such  words  as  obedient,  individual,  obdurate.  There  is  a  tendency 
in  such  words  to  pronounce  d  as  j.  This  should  be  guarded 
against. 

IV.— Sketch  on  Ch. 

The  children  may  be  employed  in  making  a  list  of  Scripture 
names  containing  ch,  and  in  learning  how  to  pronouce  them.  Ch 
is  hard  in  all  except  Rachel  and  cherubim.  In  seeking  for  exam- 
ples containing  English  ch,  they  may  give  such  words  as  creature, 
and  will  require  a  lesson  on  the  sounds  of  t  before  u.  Let  them 
make  a  list ;  as,  scripture,  culture,  lecture,  fortune,  virtue,  rapture. 
A  double  list  may  also  be  made  out ;  as, 

fracture  tincture  rupture 

child  cheese  church 

The  children  will  discover  that  these  sounds,  represented  by  tu  and 
ch,  somewhat  resemble  each  other,  but  that  the  sound  represented 
by  tu,  properly  spoken,  is  not  quite  like  ch. 

V.—S,  C,  and  Z. 

Lessons  might  be  given  on  all  the  sounds  expressed  by  s,  c, 
and  z. 

The  sound  of  s,  in  sure,  is  expressed  by  s,  ss,  sh,  ce,  ci,  cy, 
and  ti. 

Direct  attention  to  the  common  change  of  s  atonic  to  the  sub- 
tonic,  in  pronouncing  plurals  ;  as, 

birds,  pronounced  birdz. 
days,  dayz. 

dogs,  "  dogz,  &c. 

ANOMALIES. — FIKST   DIVISION. 
One  Sign  representing  Various  Sounds. 
1.  Sounds  represented  by  the  letter  a  : 

Short.        Long.        Broad.        Italian.    fofo$e*t    Short  o.        Short  e. 

bag         baby       fall  far  fare      watch         any 

nap         cape        warm       father      pair      warrant      many 
parrot    natal       walk        calm        care     wallow       Thames 


254:  READING. THIRD    STEP.  «. 

In  the  above,  and  in  succeeding  exercises,  the  title  at  the  head 
of  the  column  is  put  upon  the  board,  the  sound  given  by  the 
teacher,  and,  if  necessary,  an  example  added,  and  the  children  dic- 
tate the  words.  For  lists  of  classified  words,  see  "  "Worcester's 
Spelling  Book." 

2.  Sounds  expressed  by  the  letter  e : 

Short.  Long.  Long  a  before  r.  Short  i.  Short  Obtuse  u. 

met  mete  there  England  her 

men  complete  where  English  fern 

ferry  secrete  ere  term 

Show  that  sounds  in  the  first  and  third  columns  are  identical 
with  the  sounds  in  the  seventh  and  fifth,  under  a. 

3.  Sounds  expressed  by  the  letter  o  : 

Short.  Long.  Broad,.  Long  and  Close.  Short  u. 

dock  note  storm  move  glove 

stock  close  horn  lose  color 

lock  rose  adorn  prove  sponge 

4.  Sounds  expressed  by  the  character  u  : 

Skort.        Long.         *%%?     8%*£*        ffio*  e.         Sound  of*. 

tuck        tune  pull  fur  bury  queen 

run          mute  full  turn  busy  languid 

sun          pure  push  hurt  lingual 

Lead  the  children  to  see  that  the  u  in  tune  is  really  a  com- 
pound sound.  That  the  sound  in  bury  is  really  the  sound  of  short 
e  expressed  by  u.  Lastly,  that  u  has  the  sound  of  w  after  q  and 
after  #,  when  sounded  at  all.  (It  is  often  silent,  as  guest.) 

5.  Sounds  expressed  by  the  letter  i : 

Short.  Long.  Long  e.  Long  and  Obtuse  i. 

kin  mite  marine  bird 

nit  write  machine  fir 

sit  fire  fatigue  stir 

Lead  the  children  to  see  that  i  in  mite  is  a  compound  sound, 


READING.  -  THIRD    STEP.  255 

or  diphthong  ;  that  i  in  marine  is  identical  with  e  in  mete  ;  and 
that  i  in  bird  is  like  u  in  Turk  and  purse. 

6.  Sounds  expressed  by  y  : 
' 


Short  i. 

Long  i. 

Consonantal 
Sound. 

Obtuse  u. 

mystery 
sylvan 
symbol 

tyrant 

style 
type 

yet 
year 
your 

myrrh 
myrmidon 
myrtle 

7.  Sounds  expressed  by  ou  : 

Proper.          Long  o.  Broad  a.  Long  &  Close  o.  Short  u. 

flour  soul  wrought      group  country      scourge 

hour  mould         brought       soup  cousin         courteous 

sound          shoulder     bought        through  touch          courtesy 

SECOND    DIVISION. 

Single  Sounds  represented  by  Various  Signs. 

1.  The  long  sound  of  a  is  expressed  by  a,  and  by 

ai  ay             ea             ei              ey             au             ao 

slain  stay  break  eight  they         gauge       gaol 

pain  play  steak  skein  obey 

rain  day  great  weigh  prey 

2.  The  Italian  sound  of  a  is  expressed  by  a,  and  by 

al  ea  au 

calm  heart  haunt 

balm  hearth  daunt 

'  psalm  hearken  taunt 

3.  The  broad  sound  of  a  is  expressed  by  a,  and  by 


aw 

au 

0 

ou 

oa 

or 

fawn 

daub 

snort 

fought 

broad 

lord 

straw 

haul 

north 

brought 

groat 

horn 

raw 

vault 

lord 

thought 

storm 

4.  The  long  sound  of  a  before  r  is  expressed  by  a,  and  by 

ai  ea  ay                  e                     ei 

air  bear  prayer            ere  heir 

chair  pear  there  their 

fair  wear  where 


ai            ay            ea            ei            eo             le           u 
again       says      leather     heifer   leopard      friend    bur 
against                 feather                 jeopardy 
said                      endeavor             feoff 

7. 

The  long  sound  of  i 

'  is  expressed  by  t,  and  by 

ie 
die 
lie 
pie 

ei              ye 
height      lye 
sleight      eye 
dye 

ui  or  uy        y             ai 
buy               style        aisle 
fuy              my 
isguise        deny 

256  READING. THIRD    STEP. 

5.  The  long  sound  of  e  is  expressed  by  e,  and  by 

ee           ea           ei  eo           ey       ay             i  ie 

feet  reap  receive  people  key     quay      machine  grief 

queen  heap  perceive                                         police  piece 

green  neat  conceive                                         marine  priest 

6.  The  short  sound  of  e  is  expressed  by  e,  and  by 

ue 

guest 
guess 
quench 


eye 
eye 


8.  The  short  sound  of  i  is  expressed  by  i,  and  by 

e                  y                   ey                o               u  ui 

England      sympathy  money  women       busy  biscuit 

English       symptom  journey                         lettuce  circuit 

paroxysm  coney                            minute  guitar 

9.  The  short  sound  of  o  is  expressed  by  o,  and  by 

a  ow 

wast  knowledge 

wash 
watch 

10.  The  long  sound  of  o  is  expressed  by  o,  and  by 

oo                    oa  oe  ou  ow 

door  coal  foe  four  own 

floor  board  hoe  pour  flow 

brooch  loaf  toe  soul  sow 

ew  eau  au  eo 

sew  beau  hautboy          yeoman 

shew  bureau  hauteur 

strew  plateau  hautgout 


BEADING. THIRD   STEP.  257 

11.  The  long  sound  of  u  is  expressed  by  u,  and  by 


ue 

m 

ew 

eu 

leu 

lew 

eau 

ewe 

blue 

suits 

blew 

feudal 

adieu 

view 

beauty 

ewe 

glue 

juice 

mew 

neutral 

lieu 

sue 

sluice 

Jew 

feud 

purlieu 

12.  The  short  sound  of  u  is  expressed  by  u,  and  by 

o  ou  oo  oe 

come  rough  blood  does 

done  touch  flood 

dove  young 

13.  The  middle  or  obtuse  sound  of  u  is  expressed  by  u,  and  by 

oo  ou  o 

book  could  wolf 

good  should  woman 

took  would  bosom 

14.  The  short  and  obtuse  sound  of  u  is  expressed  by  u,  and  by 

e                   i                    ea  o  ou                y 

her  girl  dearth  word  adjourn  myrrh 

defer  twirl  hearse  worm  scourge  myrtle 

prefer  mirth  yearn  worth  journey  myrmidon 

15.  The  sound  of  ou  is  represented  also  by  ow,  as  howl,  vow, 
allow. 

16.  The  diphthong  oi  is  otherwise  represented  by  oy,  as  loy, 
coy,  toy. 

hw  is  represented  by  wh  •  as,  when,  whip,  whim,  &c. 


DICTATION. 


INTRODUCTORY   REMARKS. 

IMPORTANT  as  it  is  that  every  one  attempting  to  write  in  Eng- 
lish should  be  able  to  spell  correctly,  it  is  but  too  manifest  that 
the  painful  exercises  to  which  children  in  former  years  were  sub- 
jected failed  to  give  them  the  power  of  doing  this.  The  learning 
by  heart  of  column  after  column  of  spelling  lessons,  in  which  many 
words  not  in  common  use  would  constantly  occur,  as  well  as  many 
others  in  which  the  combination  of  letters  is  quite  arbitrary,  exer- 
cising only  memory,  has  proved,  to  a  great  extent,  a  wearisome 
waste  of  time.  This  plan  of  instruction  is  now  happily  superseded 
by  dictation  lessons,  which,  when  rightly  given,  call  out  close  ob- 
servation, and  thus  tend  to  fix  the  correct  spelling  of  words  in  the 
mind. 

FIRST   STEP. 

Object. — At  this  step  dictation  may  be  considered  an  exercise 
in  writing.  The  children  first  learn  how  to  print  letters  which  are 
simple  in  form,  as  a,  £,  n,  and  to  join  them  together,  so  as  to  make 
words  of  two  letters. 

Plan. — 1.  The  teacher  to  print  a  letter — the  letter  L,  for  in- 
stance— on  the  board,  the  children  being  required  to  observe  care- 
fully how  it  is  done,  to  say  what  kind  of  lines  are  made,  and  also 
their  direction,  a  simple  definition  being  sufficient.  The  children 
to  observe,  further,  where  the  teacher  begins  the  formation  of  the 
letter,  and  where  the  formation  of  it  ends.  The  teacher  then 


DICTATION. SECOND    STEP.  259 

makes  a  second  letter,  0,  and  joins  it  to  the  first,  directing  the 
children's  attention  also  to  the  mode  of  its  formation.  The  chil- 
dren to  say  what  word  is  made. 

2.  The  teacher  to  print  the  same  word  very  slowly  two  or 
three  times  over ;  to  require  the  children  to  observe  closely,  and 
to  imitate  the  act  by  moving  a  finger  as  if  writing  in  the  air. 

3.  The  teacher  to  require  two  or  three  children  to  print  the 
same  word  on  the  board,  to  compare  the  word  they  have  printed 
with  the  copy,  and  to  say  in  what  they  are  alike,  and  in  what  they 
differ,  and  how  they  could  be  improved. 

4.  The  children  may  then  print  the  same  word  three  or  four 
times  over  on  their  own  slates,  the  teacher  seeing  that  the  copy  is 
constantly  referred  to,  and  also  carefully  and  frequently  examining 
the  slate.     As  improvement  in  writing  mainly  depends  upon  the 
children  attentively  observing  the  copy,  and  comparing  their  own 
work  with  it,  the  teacher  should  occasionally  print  on  the  board 
an  imitation  of  one  of  the  children's  productions — either  a  very 
good  or  a  very  bad  one ;  the  rest  of  the  children  to  say  in  what 
the  letters  are  rightly  or  wrongly  formed ;  then  to  look  at  their 
own  slates,  and  see  to  which  their  own  copy  bears  most  resem- 
blance. 

SECOND    STEP. 

Object. — There  are  three  points  in  which  this  Step  is  in  ad- 
vance upon  the  First  Step :  1.  The  children  are  led  to  observe  the 
proportion  between  the  different  parts  of  letters ;  and  2.  The  po- 
sition of  the  words  printed  on  the  slate.  3.  They  are  taught  to 
hold  the  pencil  properly. 

Plan. — The  teacher  gives  a  word,  the  children  spell  it ;  then 
this  word  is  printed  on  the  board,  as  in  the  First  Step.  The  chil- 
dren are  then  led  to  observe  the  relative  position  of  the  letters, 
their  size,  and  the  proportion  of  their  parts.  They  are  directed  to 
begin  to  print  the  words  at  the  top  of  the  left-hand  corner  of  their 
slates,  and  to  continue  them  successively  in  a  straight  line  toward 
the  right.  They  are  usually  led  to  print  such  words  as  occur  on 
the  boards  from  which  they  read.  After  the  children  have  printed 


260  DICTATION. FOURTH    STEP. 

two  or  three  words,  and  these  have  been  carefully  examined,  these 
words,  as  well  as  those  from  which  they  were  copied,  are  rubbed 
out,  and  they  are  required  to  print  the  same  words  from  dictation. 
They  are  then  instructed  in  the  proper  mode  of  holding  a  pencil, 
practising  this  before  they  commence  writing. 


THIRD    STEP. 

Object. — To  teach  the  children  to  substitute  written  for  printed 
characters.  The  daily  practice  of  the  children  in  reading  ,the  sum- 
maries of  lessons  written  on  the  board,  during  their  object  lesson, 
will  assist  in  preparing  them  to  pass  from  printed  to  written  charac- 
ters. The  latter  are  introduced  at  this  Step,  together  with  the  use 
of  the  comma  and  period. 

Plan. — 1.  The  two  different  alphabets  are  written  on  the 
blackboard,  and  the  children  exercised  in  writing  the  two  forms 
of  the  same  letter  on  their  slates.  The  teacher  next  gives  out  the 
first  word  of  a  sentence,  the  children  spell  it,  and  one  of  them 
writes  it  on  the  board,  being  directed  to  begin  with  a  capital  let- 
ter ;  the  rest  examine  the  word,  saying  whether  the  letters  are  of 
the  proper  height  and  inclination ;  any  points  not  noticed  by  the 
children  to  be  taken  up  by  the  teacher.  All  the  words  in  the  sen- 
tence are  in  succession  similarly  dealt  with. 

2.  The  teacher  supplies  the  stops,  and  directs  the  children's 
attention  to  their  use  and  their  position.     The  children  are  re- 
quired to  look  at  the  sentence  carefully  for  two  or  three  minutes, 
and  to  notice  the  spelling  of  each  word. 

3.  The  whole  is  then  rubbed  out,  and  the  children  write  the 
sentence  on  their  own  slates,  at  the  dictation  of  the  teacher.     The 
slates  are  constantly  and  carefully  examined  by  the  teacher,  and 
faults  or  excellences  pointed  out. 


FOURTH    STEP. 

Object. — To  lead  the  children  to  a  more  close  observation  of 
the  spelling  of  words,  especially  that  of  some  of  the  peculiar  words 


DICTATION. FOURTH    STEP.  261 

of  our  language.  They  are  also  exercised  in  the  use  of  capital 
letters,  and  of  the  notes  of  interrogation  and  exclamation,  and 
taught  the  rules  which  regulate  the  use  of  all  these.  Any  dicta- 
tion spelling  book  may  be  used  as  a  text  book. 

Plan. — This  is  exemplified  in  the  following  suggestions  : 

1.  Words  are  given,  similar  in  sound,  but  differing  in  spelling 
and  signification  ;  as,  for  example,  all,  awl ;  piece,  peace,  &c. 

2.  Words  similarly  spelt,   but  differently  pronounced  or  ap- 
plied ;  such  as,  close — shut  fast ;  close — to  join,  to  shut ;  conduct — 
behavior ;  conduct — to  lead,  to  manage,  &c.,  treated  in  the  same 
way  as  the  former  class  of  words. 

3.  Words  spelt  and  pronounced  alike,  but  differing  in  signifi- 
cation ;  as,  hail — drops  of  rain  frozen  while  falling ;  hail — to  call 
out. 

4.  The  children  learn  the  distinction  between  vowels  and  con- 
sonants, and  are  made  acquainted  with  a  few  simple  rules  of  spell- 
ing ;  as,  for  example,  under  what  circumstances  a  consonant  is 
doubled,  as  in  leg,  legging,  run,  running,   &c. ;  when  one  I  is  to 
be  omitted,  as  in  almost,  made  up  of  all  and  most ;   skilful,  made 
up  of  skill  and  full.     During  these  lessons,  the  capital  letters  and 
different  stops  are  used. 

The  following  plan  may  be  adopted  when  the  lesson  is  on 
words  similar  in  sound,  but  differing  in  spelling  and  signification : 

1.  Suppose  the  words  to  be  see  and  sea.     The  teacher  writes 
see  upon  the  board,  directs  the  children's  attention  to  the  spelling 
and  meaning  (the  latter  to  be  written  opposite  the  word) ;  and  the 
teacher  asks  whether  they  have  heard  a  word  of  the  same  sound 
used  in  any  other  sense  ?     If  not,  to  tell  them  that  a  portion  of 
the  ocean  is  called  sea.     This  word,  sea,  to  be  then  written  under 
the  other,  the  children  to  compare  the  two,  to  say  in  what  they 
«,re  alike  and  in  what  they  differ,  and  to  give  the  meaning  of 
each : 

See — to  look. 

Sea — part  of  the  ocean. 

2.  The  teacher  to  dictate  the  sentence,  "  I  can  see  the  sea ;" 
to  require  a  child  to  write  it  upon  the  board  ;  the  rest  of  the  chil- 


DICTATION. — FOURTH    STEP. 

dren  to  examine  the  sentence,  and  especially  the  spelling  of  the 
two  words,  see  and  sea,  and  to  say  whether  each  is  spelt  correctly ; 
why,  in  that  particular  sentence,  the  last  word  is  spelt  sea,  and 
not  see. 

3.  The  teacher  to  dictate  two  or  three  sentences  containing 
both  these  words ;  the  children  to  write  them  on  their  own  slates. 
After  each  sentence  is  written,  all  the  slates  to  be  examined  by 
the  teacher.-  If  the  teacher  meets  with  a  sentence  in  which  the 
two  words  are  not  spelt  correctly,  to  copy  it  on  the  board,  and 
submit  it  to  the  inspection  of  the  class.  When  they  have  decided 
where  and  what  the  error  is,  they  are  to  examine  what  they  have 
written  on  their  own  slates,  and,  comparing  it  with  that  on  the 
board,  make  the  necessary  corrections. 


ELEMENTAEY  LESSONS,  PEEPAEATOEY 
TO   GEOGEAPHY. 

INTKODUCTOKY    KEMAKKS. 

THE  elementary  principles  of  geography  are  those  which  relate 
to  position  or  place,  including  both  the  relative  position  of  places 
with  respect  to  each  other,  and  also  their  position  as  determined 
by  the  points  of  the  compass.  Under  this  head  may  also  be 
arranged  the  idea  of  distance,  as  leading  to  the  necessity  of  a 
standard  of  measurement  by  which  such  distance  may  be  esti- 
mated and  described. 

The  second  principle  is  that  of  form,  which  introduces  the  con- 
sideration of  the  outline  or  boundaries  of  countries. 

The  third  is  that  of  physical  geography,  which  affords  most 
interesting  materials  for  instruction ;  for  by  the  help  of  models, 
and  by  observation  on  the  physical  features  of  their  own  imme- 
diate neighborhood,  even  very  young  children  may  be  led  to  ap- 
preciate the  grander  and  more  developed  features  of  other  coun- 
tries. The  study  of  topographical  geography  should  commence 
with  the  accurate  observation  of  the  locality  in  which  the  instruc- 
tion is  given,  thus  carrying  out  the  Pestalozzian  principle  of  pro- 
ceeding from  the  known  to  the  unknown.  The  following  remarks 
by  Mr.  Moseley,  one  of  the  inspectors  of  Government  Schools  in 
England,  are  so  very  valuable,  and  so  much  in  harmony  with  the 
principles  upon  which  all  Pestalozzian  instruction  is  based,  that  it 
is  thought  well  to  repeat  them  here : 

"  In  proposing  that  a  course  of  instruction,  addressed  to  an 
elementary  school  in  geography,  should  commence  with  the  to- 
pography of  the  school  district ;  that,  aiming  at  the  description  of 


264:  ELEMENTARY   GEOGRAPHY. 

nature  under  remote  and  inaccessible  forms,  it  should  begin  with 
the  description  of  those  under  which  it  is  familiar,  and  which  are 
at  hand ;  that,  in  speaking  of  the  social  and  political  relations  of 
distant  regions,  it  should  begin  by  instructing  the  child  in  those  of 
its  own,  I  take  into  my  view  the  eminently  educative  character  of 
this  course,  and  that  natural  process  of  the  development  of  the 
^faculties  of  the  child  which  is  implied  in  it.  In  the  first  place, 
that  faculty  of  observation  will  have  been  practised  which  admits 
of  so  vast  an  enlargement  of  its  sphere  of  operation  by  habit. 
The  child  will  first  have  been  led  to  observe  the  directions  of  lanes 
and  footpaths,  the  irregular  figures  traced  out  by  the  boundaries 
of  fields  and  farms,  the  varieties  of  surface  level,  the  lines  of  direc- 
tion of  elevated  grounds,  and  valleys,  and  streams,  the  plants  and 
trees,  the  crops  of  the  neighboring  lands,  the  mines  and  manufac- 
tories ;  and  the  questions  addressed  to  him  at  school  on  these  mat- 
ters will  have  led  him  to  observe  these  with  precision  and  accu- 
racy ;  for  above  all,  and  as  a  necessary  condition  to  every  other 
valuable  result,  his  attention  will  have  been  gained,  because  it  is 
directed  to  matters  which  he  can  understand,  and  which  interest 
him.  Next,  his  faculty  of  memory  will  have  been  constantly  ex- 
ercised under  that  form  in  which  it  ministers  most  readily  to  the 
uses  of  life,  i.  e.,  concerning  things  rather  than  words.  Then  his 
imagination  will  have  been  educated  and  directed,  in  its  operation, 
to  legitimate  objects.  To  abstract — to  separate  the  idea  from  the 
object  on  which  it  has  formed  itself;  to  enlarge  and  to  generalize 
that  idea ;  to  compare  it  with  others,  and  to  combine  ideas  under 
new  forms,  giving  order -and  proportion,  and  beauty  of  arrange- 
ment and  disposition  to  the  parts  so  assembled  together  in  the 
mind,  and  correspondence  to  some  proposed  model,  or  adaptation 
to  some  result ;  this  is  the  process  of  invention,  and  the  work  of 
imagination.  And  what  but  this  is  done,  when,  from  ideas  col- 
lected from  present  objects,  a  picture  is  formed  in  the  mind  wholly 
different  in  the  arrangement  of  its  parts  and  their  distribution,  and 
vastly  increased  in  its  dimensions  ?  It  is  in  leaving  this  picture 
on  the  mind  of  the  child,  vivid  in  its  colors,  and  complete  in  all  its 
characteristic  features,  that  consists  the  art  of  the  teacher. 

"  No  single  step  in  this  process  can  be  taken  without  some 


ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. — FIRST  STEP.       265 

exercise  of  the  intelligence.  It  is,  in  fact,  from  one  end  to  the 
other,  a  process  of  induction,  every  element  of  which  is  linked  to 
another  by  an  obvious  causation.  Independently  of  this  relation 
in  everything  made  the  subject  of  observation,  there  will  moreover 
be  some  adaptation  of  that  particular  thing — whether  it  be  a  sen- 
sible object,  or  a  social  or  political  relation,  or  a  process  of  art  or 
manufacture — to  an  end  or  a  result ;  an  adaptation  which,  if  it  be 
not  obvious,  will  form  a  legitimate  subject  of  instruction,  and  a 
means  of  educating  the  reasoning  faculty  in  the  child. 

"  It  is  this  educative  character  which  gives  to  the  course  its 
highest  value ;  and  it  is,  in  point  of  fact,  with  a  simple  reference 
to  that  character,  that  I  have  thought  it  worth  while  to  record 
here  the  exposition  of  it. 

"  Geography  acquires  its  full  value  as  a  branch  of  education 
only  when  it  loses  the  character  of  an  accumulation  of  facts,  un- 
digested by  the  child's  mind,  but  heaped  up  in  his  memory,  linked 
by  no  association  with  the  world  of  thought  and  of  action  which 
immediately  surrounds  it,  or  with  that  which  is  within  it.  Tell 
the  child  to  observe  the  lines  of  the  map  which  hangs  perpetually 
before  his  eyes,  and  talk  to  him  only  of  the  names  of  the  places 
indicated  upon  it,  and  you  will  soon  weary  his  attention ;  but  speak 
to  him  of  the  living  men  who  inhabit  it ;  tell  him  of  their  stature, 
and  aspect,  and  dress,  and  ways  of  life,  and  of  their  forms  of  wor- 
ship ;  speak  of  the  climate  of  that  country  ;  of  the  forms  of  vege- 
table and  animal  life  with  which  his  eye  would  be  conversant  if 
he  dwelt  there  ;  of  the  trees  and  flowers  that  grow  there,  and  of 
the  birds  and  beasts,  and  you  will  carry  his  interest  with  you. 
That  relation  to  external  things  which  characterizes  their  mode  of 
being  and  condition  of  life,  he  will  understand  by  a  reference  to 
his  own  ;  and  he  will  have  acquired  a  knowledge  of  some  of  those 
things,  in  reference  to  them,  the  like  of  which  are  of  interest  to 
himself." 

FIKST    STEP. 

Object. — 1.  To  prepare  the  children  to  enter  with  intelligence 
upon  the  study  of  geography,  by  first  drawing  their  observation  to 
12 


266       ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. — FIRST  STEP. 

relative  position  or  place,  beginning  with  the  situation  of  the  things 
which  they  see  around  them,  and  the  distance  of  these  from  each 
other.  2.  To  give  the  children  a  knowledge  of  the  cardinal  points 
of  the  compass,  and  their  use  in  geographical  descriptions.  3.  To 
bring  before  them  the  mode  of  representing  distances,  and  to  teach 
them  a  scale  of  measurement  of  distance,  and  the  nature  and  use 
of  a  map. 

These  points  are  carried  out  in  the  following 


LESSONS    ON    PLACE. 
LESSON  1. 

I.  POSITION  OF  OBJECTS. — Bring  before  the  children  three 
objects,  say  two  ink  wells  and  a  book.     Place  the  book  in  the 
middle,  with  an  ink  well  on  each  side  of  it.     Let  a  child  do  the 
same  with  two  other  ink  wells  and  another  book,  the  rest  to  •  say 
if  rightly  done.     Alter  the  position  of  the  objects,  putting  the  ink 
wells  in  line,  and  the  book  in  front  of  them.     A  second  child  to 
imitate,  &c.     Produce  four  objects,  and  arrange  them,  say  the  ink 
wells  in  the  middle,  and  the  books  on  each  side.     Then  the  books 
in  the  middle,  &c.     Then  ink  wells  and  books  alternately.     Then 
ink  wells  and  books,  one  at  each  of  the  four  corners  of  the  table, 
children  always  engaged  in  imitating,  or  deciding  on  the  correct* 
ness  of  another's  imitation. 

II.  Having  arranged  the  objects  as  before,  disarrange  them, 
and  let  the  children  rearrange  them  from  memory.     After  going 
through  the  exercises  before  performed  in  this  way,  introduce  one 
or  two  new  exercises ;  as,  for  instance,  two  ink  wells  behind,  and 
two  books  before. 

LESSON  2. 

Relative  Position  of  the  Parts  of  the  Room. 

I.    Let  the  children  name  the  place  in  which  they  are  sitting. 
See  if  they  can  distinguish,  by  name,  the  parts  of  the  room ;  as, 


ELEMENTARY   GEOGRAPHY. — FIRST   STEP.  267 

floor,  wall,  ceiling,  pointing  to  each  as  directed.  To  bring  out  the 
position  of  these,  let  them  point  to  that  part  of  the  room  which  is 
nearest  to  their  feet.  Name  that  part  (floor).  S.  R. :  "  The  floor 
is  below  our  feet."  Teacher  ascends  a  chair  in  the  middle  of  the 
room,  desiring  the  child  to  point  to  that  part  of  the  room  nearest 
her  head.  S.  R. :  "  The  ceiling  is  above  our  heads."  Require 
the  children  to  put  their  slates  above  their  heads,  also  below  their 
feet.  Lead  them  to  observe  where  the  ceiling  is,  with  reference 
to  the  floor ;  and  the  floor,  with  reference  to  the  ceiling.  Next  de- 
sire them  to  point  to  the  walls.  A  child  to  go  round  the  room, 
touching  the  wall  as  he  goes.  S.  R. :  "  The  walls  go  round  the 
room."  In  the  same  way  develop  the  ideas  of  between,  before, 
behind. 

II.  Exercise  the  children  in  pointing  out  the  position  of  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  room,  with  respect  to  other  parts  of  the  room, 
or  to  themselves,  or  articles  of  furniture,  exercising  them  in  apply- 
ing the  terms  learned. 

LESSON  3. 

Representation  of  Position. 

Place  upon  the  table  five  objects ;  as,  book,  pen,  slate,  ink 
well,  india  rubber.  Require  them  to  notice  and  describe  the  rela- 
tive position  of  each  of  the  objects  on  the  table.  Then  draw  an 
outline  of  the  table  on  the  board,  or  on  the  floor,  marking  within,  the 
objects  as  they  stand,  according  to  the  direction  of  the  children  ; 
e.  g.,  the  slate  in  the  middle ;  the  books  in  the  farthest  corner,  on 
the  side  nearest  the  wall,  on  the  left  hand ;  the  india  rubber  in  the 
opposite  corner,  on  the  right  hand ;  the  pen  and  the  ink  well  in 
the  remaining  corners  respectively.  Exercise  the  children  in 
touching  first  the  objects,  and  tr/en  their  representations,  on  the 
board  or  floor.  Then  alter  the  positions  of  the  objects,  putting 
them  in  line,  from  the  right-hand  corner  on  one  side,  to  the  left- 
hand  corner  on  the  other  side.  Again  mark  them  on  the  board  or 
floor,  as  directed.  Lastly,  rearrange  the  objects  in  any  other  way,  . 
and  let  a  child  mark  the  position  on  the  board.  Several  exercises 
to  be  had  in  this  way. 


268       ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. — FIEST  STEP. 

LESSON  4. 

East  and  West. 

"When  the  children  have  been  accustomed  to  determine  the 
relative  position  of  objects,  they  must  be  led  to  consider  places  in 
the  same  point  of  view,  and  to  this  end  they  should  be  made  ac- 
quainted with  the  use  of  the  several  points  of  the  compass.  Begin 
by  collecting  from  them  anything  they  may  have  observed  with 
respect  to  the  apparent  course  of  the  sun ;  where  they  have  seen 
it  rise  in  the  morning,  and  where  set  in  the  evening ;  and  tell 
them  that  the  place  in  the  heavens  where  it  rises,  is  called  the 
East ;  that  in  which  it  sets,  the  West.  Then  question  them  in 
different  ways,  to  see  that  they  have  understood  the  information 
given,  and  that  it  is  well  fixed  in  their  minds.  Call  out  some  of 
the  children,  and  tell  them  to  place  themselves  with  their  right 
hands  to  the  east,  and  their  left  hands  to  the  west.  Bid  them  look 
toward  the  east.  Ask  them  what  they  might  expect  to  see  there 
early  in  the  morning  ?  Desire  them  to  look  to  the  west,  and  say 
when  they  would  see  the  sun  in  that  direction.  Ask  which  is  the 
western,  and  which  the  eastern  side  of  the  room,  and  the  same  of 
the  playground.  Through  which  windows  will  the  sun  shine  in 
the  morning,  and  through  which  in  the  afternoon?  The  other 
afternoon,  as  I  was  walking,  I  saw  the  sun  before  me  like  a  great 
ball  of  fire,  and  then  it  gradually  sunk,  till  I  lost  sight  of  it ;  in 
what  direction  must  I  have  been  walking  ?  My  bedroom  window 
is  very  nicely  placed,  for  the  sun  shines  into  my  room  the  first 
thing  in  the  morning,  to  tell  me  it  is  time  to  get  up ;  to  what  part 
of  the  heavens  is  my  window  opposite  ?  By  similar  questions  fix 
well  in  the  children's  minds  which  are  the  eastern  and  western 
points.  Excite  them  to  observe,  both  at  home  and  at  school, 
where  the  sun  may  be  seen  at  different  parts  of  the  day,  and  close 
the  lesson  by  a  simultaneous  repetition :  u  That  direction  in  which 
the  sun  rises,  is  called  the  East;  and  that  in  which  it  sets,  the 


ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. — FIRST  STEP.  269 

LESSON  5. 

North  and  South. 

This  lesson  should  commence  with  a  repetition  of  the  preced- 
ing one.  Some  children  may  then  be  called  out,  and  bid  to  place 
themselves  with  their  right  hands  to  the  east,  and  their  left  to  the 
west,  and  then  be  told  that  the  point  directly  before  them  is  the 
North,  and  that  directly  behind  them  the  South.  Make  them  re- 
peat together  :  "  If  we  stand  with  our  right  hands  to  the  east,  and 
our  left  hands  to  the  west,  the  point  directly  before  us  is  the  North, 
and  that  directly  behind  us  is  the  South.'11  What  must  you  ob- 
serve, in  order  to  find  out  where  the  east  and  west  are  ?  If  you 
know  the  east  and  west,  how  can  you  find  out  the  north  and 
south  ?  Ask  the  direction  in  which  the  children  who  have  been 
called  out  must  walk,  if  they  wish  to  go  to  the  north  side  of  the 
room,  and  in  which  if  they  wish  to  go  toward  the  south  ?  Let 
them  determine  the  north,  south,  east,  and  west  sides  of  their  school- 
room and  playground.  Call  out  one  child,  and  bid" him  walk  from 
north  to  south,  another  from  south  to  east,  and  another  to  walk  in 
whatever  direction  he  pleases,  the  children  in  the  room  determining 
which  way  he  goes.  Let  the  children  place  a  stick  or  draw  a  line 
with  chalk  upon  the  floor  in  the  direction  of  north  and  south,  east 
and  west.  Hold  up  two  pieces  of  wood  or  card,  crossing  each 
other  at  right  angles,  one  of  them  pointing  directly  north  and 
south,  and  let  the  children  say  which  end  points  north,  and  which 
east. 

In  such  exercises,  the  object  is  to  occupy  only  so  much  time 
upon  each  new  idea  as  may  suffice  to  fix  it  on  the  mind.  The 
manner  in  which  it  is  presented  should  be  varied,  that  the  lesson 
may  be  interesting.  To  effect  this,  the  children  should  themselves 
be  actors  as  far  as  is  consistent  with  tolerable  order.  A  teacher 
should  recollect  that  it  is  both  unnecessary  and  unwise  to  expect 
little  children  to  be  always  in  precise  order ;  this  would  be  un- 
natural to  the  joyous  and  active  habits  of  infancy.  "  The  teacher 
should  know  when  the  strictness  of  discipline  may  be  safely  re- 
laxed, while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  power  of  maintaining  order 
should  never  be  relinquished. 


270       ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. — FIKST  STEP. 

LESSON  6. 

Repetition  of  Preceding  Lessons. 

It  may  be  desirable  that  this  lesson  should  consist  of  exercises- 
on  the  points  of  the  compass.  Let  the  children  determine  the 
position  of  the  different  articles  in  the  room.  Call  upon  some  of 
them  to  say  in  what  direction  they  must  move  to  go  to  these ;  in 
what  direction  they  must  walk  in  order  to  reach  their  homes,  and 
in  what  direction  on  coming  from  home  to  school.  The  teacher's 
own  judgment  must  determine  as  to  whether  or  not  she  bring  a 
new  subject  before  the  children  in  this  lesson.  This  will  depend 
much  upon  the  aptitude  with  which  past  lessons  have  been  ac- 
quired. She  must  see  to  it  that  her  children  are  firm  on  one  step 
of  the  ladder  of  knowledge,  before  they  proceed  to  another ;  and 
she  must  be  careful  not  to  weary  and  disgust  them,  by  keeping 
them  too  long  on  one  idea. 

LESSON  7. 
Semi-car dina  I  Poin  ts. 

In  order  to  test  the  clearness  of  the  children's  apprehension, 
the  following  questions  might  be  put : 

Suppose  you  wished  to  describe  the  particular  direction  of 
some  place,  how  would  you  do  it  ?  Yes ;  you  would  tell  me  it 
was  either  to  the  north,  or  south,  or  east,  or  west.  And  how 
should  I  be  able  to  find  out  which  is  the  north,  south,  east,  or 
west  ?  By  observing  where  the  sun  sets  or  rises. 

When  we  wish  to  represent  the  situations  of  different  places 
on  paper  or  on  a  slate,  we  call  the  top  the  north ;  where,  then, 
will  the  south  be  represented  ?  At  the  bottom  of  the  blackboard. 
"Where  the  east  ?  and  where  the  west  ?  The  teacher  writes  the 
four  cardinal  points  on  the  blackboard.  How  many  points  have 
you  learned  ?  But  are  things  or  places  always  exactly  at  the 
north,  the  south,  the  east,  or  the  west  ?  Where  may  they  be  ? 
They  may  be  between  any  two  of  these  points,  and  you  should 
know  how  to  describe  their  position  in  this  case.  Now  attend, 
and  I  will  teach  you  this.  A  point  halfway  between  the  north 


ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. SECOND  STEP.      271 

and  east  is  said  to  be  northeast.  "What  do  you  think  halfway  be- 
tween north  and  west  is  called  ?  Yes  ;  northwest.  And  what 
between  south  and  east  ?  Yes ;  southeast.  And  what  between 
south  and  west  ?  Yes ;  southwest.  The  teacher  writes  these 
names  on  the  board.  How  many  points  do  you  now  know  ? 
Kepeat  them  together.  Where  is  the  northwest?  where  the 
southwest  ?  &c.  Call  a  child  to  point  to  these  on  the  board,  the 
other  children  say  what  is  pointed  to,  Then  call  upon  the 
children  to  determine  the  place  of  these  eight  different  points  in 
the  room.  Then  call  out  a  child,  and  tell  him  to  take  a  position 
at  the  northeast,  another  at  the  northwest,  &c.  Then  desire  a 
child  to  go  to  any  point  he  may  please,  and  another  to  point  out 
upon  the  board  the  direction  in  which  he  stands.  Such  exercises 
will  show  whether  the  children  understand  the  direction  of  the 
cardinal  points,  and  those  positions  in  a  map  which  usually  repre- 
sent them.  The  lesson  should  conclude  with  a  simultaneous  repe- 
tition of  the  names  of-  all  the  cardinal  points  of  the  compass. 


SECOND    STEP. 
LESSON  1. 

The  Necessity  for  Standard  Points  of  Direction. — The  Relative 
Position  of  Objects. 

Of  how  many  points  of  the  compass  do  you  know  the  names  ? 
Repeat  them.  Show  me  where  you  would  look  for  each  point, 
and  where  each  point  would  be  represented  on  the  board.  When 
we  know  where  these  points  are,  we  can  easily  direct  each  other 
here  and  there,  which  is  very  convenient.  Can  you  tell  me  any 
other  way  of  directing  a  person  except  by  these  points  ?  Yes  ; 
by  telling  him  to  go  to  the  right,  or  to  the  left.  Let  us  try  this. 
Now  direct  me  in  which  direction  to  walk ;  I  wish  to  go  to  the 
door.  You  must  go  to  the  right.  The  teacher  turning  half 
round :  Must  I  go  to  the  right  now  ?  No.  Is  the  door  in  all 
cases  to  my  right  ?  No.  What  must  you  know  before  you  can 
direct  a  person  to  go  to  the  right  or  left  ?  We  must  know  in 


272      ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. — SECOND  STEP. 

what  position  he  stands.  If,  then,  a  person  in  the  next  room,  or 
at  a  distance,  were  to  send  and  ask  you  how  to  find  some  place, 
would  it  do  to  say,  It  is  to  your  right,  or  left  ?  No.  Why  not  ? 
But  if  you  tell  him  that  the  place  he  wishes  to  find  is  to  the  north 
or  south  of  the  place  in  which  he  then  is,  will  this  help  him  to 
know  the  situation  of  the  place  he  seeks  ?  Yes.  Why  ?  Could 
his  moving  alter  the  place  of  the  north  or  south  ?  Your  right 
hand  or  your  left  hand  may  change  their  position,  but  the  points 
of  the  compass  are  always  fixed,  and  this  is  the  reason  they  are 
so  useful  in  describing  the  position  of  different  places.  You  can 
direct  people  how  to  travel,  by  telling  them  that  the  places  to 
which  they  go  are  toward  the  north  or  south,  &c.  Now  you  shall 
say  where  the  different  objects  in  this  room  are  situated.  Where 
is  the  table  ?  the  stove  ?  the  windows  ?  the  door  ?  the  cabinet  ? 
any  particular  picture  ?  &c.  Now  we  will  represent  the  position 
of  all  these  upon  a  slate. 

Name  something  in  this  room.  The  cabinet.  On  what  side 
of  this  room  is  the  cabinet  ?  It  is  on  the  north  side.  Which 
part  of  the  slate  represents  the  north  side  ?  I  will  put  a  mark 
there  to  represent  the  cabinet.  Now  tell  me  what  object  is  on  the 
west  side  of  the  room.  Which  side  of  the  slate  represents  the 
west  ?  I  will  put  marks  at  this  side  of  the  slate  for  those  things 
which  you  describe  as  being  to  the  west.*  In  this  manner  the 
situation  of  the  principal  parts  of  the  room  and  its  various  con- 
tents may  be  represented  On  the  slate.  What  have  I  done  ?  You 
have  put  marks  on  the  slate  which  show  where  the  different  things 
in  the  room  are  situated.  Yes ;  whether  they  are  toward  the 
north,  south,  &c. 

LESSON  2. 
Boundaries  of  the  Schoolroom.^ 

Repeat  the  names  of  those  points  of  the  compass  which  you 
have  learned.  One  of  you  come  and  show  me  where  each  point 

*  The  slate  should  be  first  placed  horizontally,  this  being  the  natural  posi- 
tion of  the  earth's  surface ;  afterward  it  should  be  placed  in  a  vertical  position, 
opposite  the  class. 

t  It  has  been  suggested  that  lessons  on  Physical  Geography  might  be  well 


ELEMENTARY   GEOGEAPHY. SECOND   STEP.  273 

would  be  represented  on  the  blackboard.  We  will  now  draw  on 
the  board  the  shape  or  plan  of  this  room.  How  many  sides  has 
the  room  ?  Four.  "Which  is  the  north  side  ?  Where  must  I 
place  the  line  representing  it  ?  At  the  top  of  the  board.  Where 
is  the  south  side  of  the  room  ?  Where  must  I  represent  it  on  the 
board  ?  At  the  bottom.  What  length  must  this  line  be  ?  The 
same  length  .as  that  which  represents  the  north.  Why  ?  Be- 
cause the  north  and  south  of  the  room  are  of  the  same  length.  In 
what  side  of  this  room  is  the  door  ?  It  is  in  the  west  side. 
Where  must  I  draw  a  line,  that  it  may  represent  the  west  side 
of  this  room  ?  On  the  left  side  of  the  slate.  What  length  must 
the  line  be  ?  It  must  be  longer  than  the  other  lines.  What  side 
remains  to  be  represented?  The  east  side.  Where  must  I 
draw  the  line  representing  it  ?  To  the  right  of  the  other  lines. 
What  length  must  I  make  it  ?  The  same  in  length  as  the  west 
side.  What  sides  of  the  room  are  alike  ?  What  figure  have 
I  drawn?  An  oblong.  What  do  the  lines  represent?  The 
walls  of  the  room.  How  far  does  the  room  extend  ?  As  far  as 
the  walls.  How  many  walls  has  the  room?  These  four  walls 
are  the  boundaries  of  the  schoolroom  ;  they  bound  it.  What  are 
the  walls  to  the  rooms  ?  They  are  its  boundaries.  How  are 
these  boundaries  represented  on  the  blackboard  ?  By  lines.  And 
what  figure  do  these  four  lines  make  ?  An  oblong.  And  what 
does  this  oblong  that  I  have  drawn  on  the  board  represent  ?  The 
shape  of  the  room.  I  have  drawn  lines  representing  the  bound- 
aries of  the  room,  and  these  show  its  shape.  If,  then,  I  wish  to 
draw  the  plan  of  any  room  or  place,  what  must  I  do  ?  You  must 
draw  its  boundaries.  The  children  should  repeat  together  :  "  The 
walls  are  the  boundaries  of  the  room.  They  are  represented  on 
the  board  by  lines,  which  describe  its  shape." 

introduced  at  this  stage  of  instruction,  before  the  consideration  of  the  nature 
of  a  map.  On  this  point  teachers  should  be  guided  by  their  own  judgment  and 
experience. 

12* 


274:  ELEMENTARY    GEOGKAPHY. SECOND   STEP. 

•f 

LESSON  3. 

Boundaries  Continued. — The  Playground. 

"What  was  the  subject  of  the  last  lesson  ?  It  was  on  the 
boundaries  of  the  room.  And  what  did  the  boundaries  show  ? 
The  shape  of  the  room.  By  how  many  walls  is  it  bounded  ?  By 
four  walls.  The  teacher  calls  a  child  to  point  out  which  line  repre- 
sents the  northern,  which  the  southern,  which  the  eastern,  and 
which  the  western  boundary.  Now  we  will  draw  the  boundaries 
of  the  playground.  This  may  be  done  in  the  same  way  as  those 
of  the  schoolroom. 

LESSON  4. 

The  Relative  Distances  of  the  Various  Parts  of  the  Schoolroom 
and  its  Furniture. 

The  plan  of  the  schoolroom  is  presented,  and  the  children 
asked  what  it  represents.  The  form  of  the  schoolroom.  What 
determines  its  form  ?  The  boundaries  of  it.  By  how  many  lines 
are  these  boundaries  represented  ?  By  four  lines.  What  more 
do  you  learn  from  this  representation  of  the  schoolroom  ?  We 
find  out  where  its  different  parts  are  situated.  How  would  you 
describe  the  situation  of  any  one  part  of  it  ?  I  would  say,  It  is 
to  the  north,  the  south,  the  east,  or  the  west.  Now  that  you  have 
learned  how  the  parts  of  the  room  and  the  things  it  contains  are 
situated  with  respect  to  the  cardinal  points  of  the  compass,  tell  me 
the  two  things  you  have  learned  from  this  representation  of  the 
schoolroom  ?  We  have  learned  the  shape  of  the  room  as  marked 
by  its  boundaries,  and  the  situation  of  the  things  it  contains  with 
respect  to  the  points  of  the  compass.  Repeat  this  together. 

You  may  call  this  representation  of  the  schoolroom  a  plan  or 
map  of  it.  And  now  we  will  talk  about  the  distances  things  are 
from  each  other ;  as  to  which  are  near  each  other,  and  which  are 
far  from  each  other.  Point  out  to  me  two  things  which  are  near 
each  other.  And  now  two  things  which  are  far  from  each  other. 
What  object  is  near  the  table?  What  halfway  between  the  table 
and  the  cabinet  ?  Where  is  the  middle  of  the  room  ?  Which 


ELEMENTARY    GEOGRAPHY. SECOND    STEP.  275 

parts  of  the  room  are  farthest  from  the  middle  of  it  ?  One  of  you 
go  and  stand  halfway  between  the  middle  of  the  room  and  the 
end.  By  how  much  are  the  ends  of  the  room  further  from  the 
middle  of  it  than  the  sides  are  ?  See,  I  will  measure  the  distance 
of  each  of  these  by  my  feet.  In  this  manner  the  teacher  must 
endeavor  to  make  the  children  determine  the  relative  distances 
from  each  other  of  the  several  parts  of  the  room  and  its  contents, 
and  also  their  relative  positions. 

LESSON  5. 

The  Relative  Distance  from  each  other  of  the  Parts  of  the  School- 
room and  its  furniture  as  Marked  on  a  Map. 

"What  was  the  subject  of  your  last  lesson  ?  The  distance  from 
each  other  of  the  things  in  the  room.  "We  will  now  mark  their 
several  positions  upon  our  map.  Which  is  the  northern  boundary 
of  the  room  ?  "Where  on  the  map  is  this  recess  to  be  drawn  ? 
What  things  are  placed  along  the  northern  wall  ?  Now  show  me 
which  line  represents  the  northern  boundary  of  the  room,  and  tell 
me  where  to  put  marks  so  as  to  show  the  place  of  each  of  the 
things  which  stand  near  that  wall  of  the  room.  Having  marked 
the  relative  position  of  the  windows,  doors,  and  school  furniture, 
and  thus  produced  a  map  of  the  room,  the  children  will  begin  to 
understand  its  use,  and  what  it  is  intended  to  represent.  What 
have  we  been  doing  in  this  lesson  ?  Representing  the  situation 
of  the  things  in  the  room.  Did  you  not  learn  in  a  former  lesson 
how  things  are  represented  on  a  map  ?  What  did  you  learn  in 
that  lesson  ?  We  learned  how  to  determine  whether  they  were 
north,  or  south,  or  east,  or  west.  And  what  have  you  now 
learned  ?  We  have  learned  to  notice  the  distance  one  thing  is 
from  another.  You  learned  in  the  former  lesson  »how  things  are 
situated  with  respect  to  the  cardinal  points  of  the  compass,  and 
now  you  have  learned  to  observe  their  situation  as  it  respects  each 
other. 


276  ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. — SECOND  STEP. 

LESSON  6. 

The  Scale  to  which  a  Map  is  Drawn. 

A  map  of  the  schoolroom  on  a  large  scale  is  shown  to  the  chil- 
dren, and  then  another,  drawn  to  a  scale  much  smaller.  What 
difference  do  you  observe  in  these  two  maps  ?  Yes  ;  one  of  them 
is  much  smaller  than  the  other,  yet  they  both  represent  the  same 
room.  Then  a  map  may  equally  represent  a  place,  whether  it  be 
large  or  small.  This  idea  may  be  further  worked  out  by  drawing 
a  large  picture  of  some  familiar  object,  say  of  a  pair  of  scissors, 
and  also  a  small  picture  of  the  same.  What  are  both  these  ? 
They  are  the  representations  of  a  pair  of  scissors.  Does  each  of 
these  represent  the  same  pair  of  scissors  equally  well  ?  The 
teacher  draws  another  picture  in  which  the  bows  are  dispropor- 
tionately large.  Does  this  picture  also  properly  represent  the  scis- 
sors ?  Why  not  ?  The  bows  are  not  in  proportion  to  the  other 
parts.  The  children  repeat :  "  We  may  have  a  large  or  small 
picture  of  a  thing,  but  the  several  parts  must  be  in  proportion  to 
each  other."  So  we  may  have  a  large  or  e-mail  map,  but  each 
part  must  have  its  true  proportion,  and  we  will  now  draw  such  a 
map  of  the  schoolroom.  What  does  this  map  of  the  schoolroom 
represent  ?  Its  boundaries.  Now  we  will  measure  the  length  of 
the  schoolroom  by  a  foot  measure.  One  of  the  children  should 
measure  it,  and  another  see  that  this  is  correctly  done.  How 
many  feet  of  length,  then,  are  represented  on  this  map  ?  Let  us 
measure  how  many  inches  the  map  is  in  length.  How  many 
inches  of  length  on  the  map  will  represent  the  number  of  feet  of 
length  in  the  schoolroom  ?  How  many  feet  will  half  the  length 
of  the  room  be  ?  By  how  many  inches  will  they  be  represented 
on  the  map  ?  Now  we  will  draw  a  line  across  the  middle  of  the 
room,  and  also  across  the  middle  of  the  map.  How  many  feet 
will  there  be. in  a  quarter  of  the  length  of  the  room?  We  will 
draw  lines  at  the  quarters.  This  may  go  on  until  a  complete  scale 
of  the  map  is  made  ;  and  the  exact  position  of  each  object  may 
be  determined,  and  a  mark  made  on  the  map  for  each,  the  number 
of  feet  being  represented  by  a  corresponding  number  of  inches. 
The  children  may  be  asked  a  variety  of  questions  as  to  the  dis- 


ELEAfENTARY    GEOGRAPHY. TRIED    STEP.  277 

tances  of  the  different  parts  of  the  room  and  the  objects  it  con- 
tains, and  where  the  points  or  figures  representing  them  are  to  be 
placed  on  the  map. 


THIRD    STEP. 

LESSON  1. 

Measurement  by  Miles. 

• 

When  we  drew  the  plan  or  map  of  the  schoolroom,  what  size 
did  we  find  it  ?  What  was  the  length  of  the  map  or  plan  in 
inches  ?  How  much,  then,  of  the  room,  did  each  inch  of  the  map 
represent  ?  But  when  we  come  in  from  a  walk  or  ride,  do  we  talk 
of  how  many  feet  or  inches  we  have  walked  ?  No ;  such  dis- 
tance is  too  great  to  be  reckoned  by  inches  or  feet,  so  we  estimate 
it  by  the  mile.  Can  any  of  you  tell  me  the  name  of  a  place 
which  is  a  mile  or  half  a  mile  from  this  place  ?  How  many  miles 
can  you  walk  in  an  hour  ?  It  is  very  important  that  the  children 
should  first  form  a  definite  idea  of  a  mile.  If  they  know  any  two 
places  a  mile  distant  from  each  other,  they  can  compare  other  dis- 
tances with  this,  thus  following  the  plan  taken  from  "  Geography 
for  Young  Children :" 

"  If  practicable,  a  mile,  or  an  aliquot  part  of  it,  as  a  quarter 
or  a  half,  should  be  actually  measured  by  the  pupil,  which  he  may 
do  with  ease  by  means  of  a  string  ten  yards  long,  44  of  which  are 
a  quarter  of  a  mile,  and  176  are  a  mile.  Boys  are  found  to  take 
great  pleasure  in  such  measurements.  As  mistakes  are  apt  to  arise 
with  large  numbers,  one  of  the  pupils  who  is  measuring,  and  who 
goes  first,  should  be  provided  with  eleven  bits  of  stick  and  four 
pebbles.  This  first  boy  lays  down  one  stick  for  each  space  of  ten 
yards,  measured  by  the  string,  which  the  second  boy  picks  up. 
When  the  eleven  sticks  have  been  picked  up  by  the  second  boy, 
they  must  be  given  back  for  one  pebble  ;  and  when  the  second 
boy  has  got  all  the  pebbles,  the  measurement  of  the  quarter  of  a 
mile  is  completed.  This  may  be  repeated  until  a  mile  has  been 
measured.  They  may  afterward  try  how  long  they  take  in  walk- 


278  ELEMENTARY    GEOGRAPHY. THIRD    STEP. 

ing  a  quarter  of  a  mile  or  a  mile,  and  then  from  this  calculate  how 
long  it  would  take  them  to  walk  greater  distances. 

"  Either  boys  or  girls  may  also  easily  measure  a  mile  with  tol- 
erable correctness,  by  pacing  it.  They  should  learn  to  take  two 
paces  to  the  yard,  when  880  such  paces  are  a  quarter  of  a  mile, 
and  3,520  a  mile.  Those  who  step  two  feet  more  conveniently, 
make  2,640  paces  to  the  mile." 


LESSON  2. 

«r 

A  Map  of  the  Neighborhood,  with  a  Scale  of  Miles. 

"When  the  children  have  been  well  exercised  in  determining 
the  distances  of  places  in  their  own  neighborhood  by  the  standard 
measure  of  a  mile  and  its  aliquot  parts,  they  should  learn  how  an 
idea  of  such  distance  is  given  by  a  scale.  Having  first  deter- 
mined how  many  miles  she  will  represent  by  an  inch,  let  the 
teacher  draw  the  principal  road  of  the  locality,  and,  knowing  the 
distances  of  different  houses  or  other' points  of  interest,  mark  them 
down  according  to  her  scale  of  distance,  and  thus  work  out  before 
her  class  a  map  of  the  immediate  locality.  The  children  may  be 
exercised  on  this  for  two  or  three  lessons,  as  the  calculations  such 
a  subject  involves,  and  the  fact  of  its  drawing  out  the  knowledge 
they  have  acquired  by  their  own  observation,  will  be  sure  to  in- 
terest them,  and  prepare  them  to  understand  the  construction  of 
maps  embracing  an  area  of  many  miles. 

In  larger  towns  and  cities  an  outline  map  of  the  locality  should 
be  presented  to  the  class,  containing  the  streets,  the  streams, 
bridges,  canal  or  railroad,  the  depot,  the  principal  places  of  busi- 
ness, all  public  buildings  and  prominent  points  of  interest.  Pre- 
paratory to  this,  however,  the  children  should  draw  a  map  of  the 
block  or  ward  in  which  their  school  is  situated,  locating  the  homes 
of  the  children.  If  practicable,  then  take  them  to  some  high  hill 
or  eminence  overlooking  the  town,  and  either  make  a  rough  map 
of  it  on  the  spot,  or,  with  an  outline  map  before  them,  point  out  on 
the  map  the  objects  seen  in  the  landscape.  This  map  should  be 
drawn  to  a  scale,  so  that  the  children  can  calculate  by  measure- 


ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. THIRD 

ment  the  distance  of  one  point  from  another.  Qtl 
to  their  relative  position.  How  long  it  would 
from  one  locality  to  another,  knowing  the  distance.  Describe 
various  localities  by  the  streets,  and  direction  from  other  points ; 
the  uses  of  the  race,  the  canal,  the  railroad,  the  light-house,  the 
harbor ;  the  object  of  the  mill,  the  machine  shop,  the  factory,  the 
various  things  manufactured  in  them ;  the  uses  of  the  public  build- 
ings, the  parks,  &c.  In  short,  make  them  quite  familiar  with 
everything  connected  with  their  own  locality. 

The  following  lessons  are  designed  to  introduce  the  study  of 
Physical  Geography,  by  careful  observation  of  the  natural  features 
of  the  immediate  neighborhood,  or,  in  the  absence  of  any  local 
exemplification,  by  the  exhibition  of  models  or  pictures,  or  by  the 
construction  of  examples  of  the  ordinary  irregularities  of  the 
earth's  surface,  in  a  box  of  moist  sand.  The  usual  verbal  geo- 
graphical definitions  should  be  taught  the  children  when  they  have 
acquired  a  clear  perception  of  the  objects  they  describe.  The  fol- 
lowing valuable  suggestions  on  this  subject  are  quoted  from  Mr. 
Moseley's  report : 

"  Violence  is  done  to  the  intelligence  of  a  child,  hitherto  lim- 
ited to  the  narrow  range  of  objects  of  which  it  is  itself  the  centre, 
and  bound  up  with  associations  so  purely  local,  when,  by  a  rude 
attempt,  its  mind  is  made  to  expatiate  over  half  the  globe,  and 
pass  to  the  conception  of  a  region,  placed,  perhaps,  under  a  wholly 
different  relation  of  external  circumstances.  These  things  are  not 
to  be  approached  by  any  such  abrupt  or  compendious  process,  or 
otherwise  than  by  the  steps  of  a  slow  and  gradual  progression. 
Not,  for  instance,  by  teaching  the  child  geographical  definitions,* 

*  Taking  into  account,  not  only  the  entire  ignorance  of  everything  connected 
with  geography  which  the  elementary  teacher  must  suppose  in  the  outset  of  her 
task,  but  the  poverty  of  the  vocabulary  of  the  children  as  to  all  forms  of  speech 
which  are  not  strictly  colloquial,  I  cannot  but  think  that  a  strange  idea  of  the 
world  which  a  child  woulc^  derive  from  a  definition  such  as  the  following,  which 
forms  the  first  paragraph  of  many  books  on  geography  :  "  Geography  is  a  de- 
scription of  the  earth.  The  figure  of  the  earth  is  that  of  a  sphere  or  globe,  slightly 
flattened  at  the  top  and  bottom,  like  an  orange.  A  straight  line  passing  through 
its  centre  from  the  north  to  the  south  is  called  its  axis,  and  the  points  in  which 
this  line  meets  the  surface  of  the  earth  are  called  respectively  its  north  and  south 
poles.  The  earth  turns  round  upon  this  axis  once  in  the  course  of  twenty -four 


280  ELEMENTARY    GEOGRAPHY* THIRD    STEP. 

or  by  accustoming  it  to  recognize  by  their  names  places  pointed 
out  to  it  on  the  map. 

"To  understand  the  distinction,  we  have  only  to  consider  how 
many  things  go  to  our  own  conception  of  a  distant  region.  The 
map  serves,  indeed,  to  define  the  idea  we  have  of  it,  to  give  it 
vividness  and  completeness,  but  it  does  not  originate  it. 

"  We  already  know  what  a  country  is,  which  the  poor  child 
does  not.  "When  a  country  is  pointed  out  by  name  to  him  upon 
the  map,  and  he  has  learned  to  tell  how,  in  respect  to  the  four  car- 
dinal points,  it  is  bounded  by  other  countries,  and  what  are  the 
names  of  its  rivers,  and  mountains,  and  chief  towns,  his  memory 
may  have  been  largely  taxed,  and  yet  his  principal  idea  of  the 
country  may,  nevertheless,  remain,  in  a  great  degree,  identified 
with  an  irregular  figure  upon  a  piece  of  paper.  A  vast  chasm  is 
interposed  in  the  child's  mind  between  the  objects  with  which  he 
is  himself  familiar,  and  those  of  which,  in  such  instruction,  he  is 
required  to  conceive  the  existence — a  chasm  which  his  imagina- 
tion is  not  strong  enough  to  bear  him  over. 

."  In  truth,  he  has  never  accustomed  himself  to  observe  with 
any  precision  or  accuracy  that  part  of  the  world  which  is  close 
around  him.  The  whole  scene  has  painted  itself  daily  before  him, 
but  has  left  no  well-defined  traces  in  his  memory.  His  percep- 
tions are  too  vague  and  too  incoherent  to  be  separated  from  the 
material  things  on  which  they  have  been  formed,  or  to  be  pre- 
sented to  the  imagination,  and  made  the  subject  of  comparison,  of 
analogy,  of  accumulation,  and  of  invention. 

"  The  first  step  in  his  education  is  to  teach  him  to  observe. 
Under  the  direction  of  a  skilful  instructor,  many  qualities  of  the 
things  around  him,  which  had  before  altogether  escaped  his  notice, 
will,  by  more  careful  observation,  be  added  to  his  knowledge,  and 
all  his  former  impressions  will  acquire  an  unaccustomed  distinct- 
ness and  precision.  This  accomplished,  and  the  child  knowing  at 

V 

hours,  from  which  revolution  follow  the  appearances  of  day  and  night"  Not- 
withstanding that  the  acquaintance  of  the  children  who  have  learned  geography 
with  the  words  of  this  or  some  similar  definition,  is  almost  universal,  I  never  yet 
was  fortunate  enough  to  meet  with  one  who  knew  what  the  earth's  axis  really 
is,  or  the  earth's  poles. 


ELEMENTARY   GEOGRAPHY. — THIRD   STEP.  281 

length  adequately,  for  the  purpose  in  hand,  the  characteristic  fea- 
tures of  that  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  which  is  within  his  own 
country,  its  varieties  of  elevation  and  aspect,  its  hills,  valleys,  and 
streams,  his  attention  may  be  directed  to  the  divisions  into  towns  ; 
also  into  fields,  and  the  fences  which  bound  them.  The  boundaries 
.of  these,  with  which  his  memory  is  familiar,  being  represented  on  the 
blackboard  by  chalk  lines,  will  convey  to  him  his  first  idea  of  a 
map  and  its  uses ;  that  idea  will,  moreover,  be  precise  and  truth- 
ful. The  next  step  might  make  him  acquainted  with  the  general 
features  of  the  watershed  of  the  district ;  and  then  the  teacher 
would  bring  under  his  view  the  useful  productions  which  it  is 
made  to  yield  by  labor,  whether  pastoral,  or  agricultural,  or  min- 
eral, associated  as  these  are  with  the  characteristic  features  of  its 
surface-level,  its  climate,  drainage,  aspect,  and  soil.  Then  the  pur- 
suits of  its  inhabitants,  whether  agricultural,  or  manufacturing,  or 
commercial,  in  alliance  with  these,  and  dependent  upon  them. 
Next,  the  domain  of  natural  history  may  be  made  to  yield  much 
for  his  instruction,  in  respect  to  the  infinite  variety  of  animal  and 
vegetable  forms  which  are  assembled  within  the  reach  of  his  im- 
mediate observation ;  the  birds  which  frequent  that  region,  the 
domestic  and  wild  animals,  some  of  the  tribes  of  insects,  the  com- 
moner plants  which  grow  around  him,  and  the  different  kinds  of 
trees.  It  is  not  proposed  to  burden  the  child's  mind,  in  respect  to 
any  of  these  matters,  with  scientific  distinctions  or  a  hard  nomen- 
clature ;  all  that  is  sought  is  a  knowledge  of  them  in  their  ordi- 
nary relations  ;  such  a  knowledge  as  the  child  acquires  in  respect 
to  those  other  things  with  which  he  is  most  familiar." 

Plan. — First,  to  call  attention  to  the  immediate  locality,  the 
schoolroom,  playground,  street,  &c.,  gradually  extending  the  sphere 
of  observation  by  embracing  the  physical  features  of  adjacent 
places,  noticing  each  point  of  variety,  either  in  inequality  of  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  or  in  the  form  of  any  natural  collections  of 
water  which  may  be  accessible.  This  close  observation  of  home 
and  its  neighborhood  will  give  distinctness  and  vividness  to  the 
perceptions  of  the  children,  and  enable  them  easily  to  conceive  the 
analogous  natural  features  of  other  countries  as  similar  in  kind, 
though  on  a  larger  scale.  The  children  should  learn  to  describe 


282  ELEMENTARY   GEOGRAPHY. — THIRD   STEP. 

the  different  appearances  of  land  and  water,  and  their  variety  in 
form  and  general  character.  They  should  also  be  made  acquainted 
with  the  various  means  of  travelling,  as  on  railroads,  turnpike 
roads,  canals,  rivers,  and  seas.  Much  attention  should  be  paid  to 
accuracy  of  language  in  describing  the  different  appearances  of 
land  and  water.  The  terms  used  should  be  thoroughly  explained, 
and  repeated,  till  they  become  impressed  upon  the  memory.  Too 
much  importance  cannot  be  attached  to  this  idea  of  thoroughness 
in  all  these  exercises.* 

LESSON  1. 

The  Earth  on  which  we  Live. 

The  teacher  may  first  lead  the  children  to  see  that  the  surface 
of  the  earth  on  which  we  live  may  be  divided  into  land  and  water, 
the  one  solid  and  immovable,  the  other  liquid  and  flowing. 

They  may  then  be  led  to  consider  the  adaptations  of  land  and 
water  to  our  necessities,  convenience,  and  habits  of  life. 

They  will  readily  discover  that  we  need  the  solid  earth  that 
we,  may  walk  upon  it,  and  build  our  dwellings  on  it,  and  also 
for  the  production  of  food  for  men  and  animals. 

Water  is  necessary  to  the  life  of  man,  and  also  to  that  of  ani- 
mals and  vegetables.  It  supplies  us  with  drink,  and  affords  an 
easy  mode  of  conveyance. 

The  lesson  may  be  summed  up.  God  has  covered  our  earth 
with  land  and  water,  both  of  which  are  necessary  to  us ;  thus 
proving  to  us  His  goodness,  and  His  care  for  our  happiness  and 
well-being. 

LESSON  2. 

The  Division  of  Land  into  Mountains  and  Plains. 

The  teacher  refers  to  the  last  lesson,  proposing  to  find  out 
something  more  respecting  the  land.  Ask  the  children  whether, 

*  The  teacher  may  derive  considerable  assistance  in  these  exercises  from  a 
little  work  called  "  First  Ideas  of  Geography,"  published  by  J.  W.  Parker, 
Strand,  London. 


ELEMENTARY   GEOGKAPHY. — THIRD   STEP.  283 

when  they  walk  across  the  schoolroom  or  the  playground,  they 
can  do  so  easily,  and  if  they  have  ever,  in  other  places,  found  it 
more  difficult  to  walk  than  it  is  there  ?  Then  ask  if  they  have 
ever  seen  horses  drawing  a  cart  with  ease  along  a  road,  and  then 
coming  to  a  place  where  they  could  with  difficulty  drag  it  ?  thus 
leading  them  to  the  recollection  of  some  rising  ground  or  hill. 

What  kind  of  land  is  that  upon  which  it  is  easy  to  move 
along  ?  That  which  is  flat  and  level.  And  what  kind  of  land  is 
that  on  which  it  is  more  difficult  to  move  ?  What  difference  may 
we  then  say  there  is  in  the  land  ?  Some  ground  is  quite  flat  and 
even,  and  some  rises  up.*  Sometimes  a  large  extent  of  land  is 
flat.  We  call  such  land  a  plain.  If  I  talk  to  you  about  a  plain, 
what  will  you  understand  the  word  to  mean  ?  Repeat  together  : 
"A  large  piece  of  land,  that  is  quite  flat  and  even,  is  called  a 
plain"  And  what  name  do  you  give  to  those  places  at  which 
the  land  rises  up  ?  We  call  them  hills.  Can  you  tell  me  the 
names  of  any  hills  you  may  have  seen  ?  When  do  you  call  the 
land  a  hill  ?  But  sometimes  the  land  rises  a  great  deal  higher 
than  the  hills  you  have  seen,  so  high  that  the  top  of  it  is  in  the 
clouds  ;  it  is  then  called  a  mountain.  In  what  are  hills  and  moun- 
tains alike  ?  They  both  are  rising  ground.  In  what  do  they 
differ ?  Mountains  rise  higher  than  hills.  Repeat  together :  "A 
mountain  is  land  that  rises  a  great  deal  higher  than  a  hill." 

LESSON    3. 

Mountains. 

The  teacher  calls  upon  the  children  to  say  how  the  earth  is 
divided,  and  what  differences  they  have  already  noticed  in  the  form 
of  the  land.  They  may  then  be  allowed  to  see  a  model  or  picture 
of  some  country,  and  to  determine  which  elevations  represent  the 
hills,  and  which  the  mountains. 

The  teacher  should  then  call  upon  them  to  find  out  the  parts 
into  which  a  mountain  may  be  divided. 

What  part  of  a  mountain  do  we  first  come  to  as  we  walk 

*  Here  reference  may  be  made  to  some  adjacent  hill  or  rising  ground. 


284:       ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. — THIRD  STEP. 

toward  it  ?  The  bottom  of  it.  This  is  called  the  base.  Look  at 
this  model  of  a  mountain,  and  run  your  finger  round  the  base. 
Repeat  together :  "  The  lowest  part  of  a  mountain  is  called  the 
base."  When  you  go  up  a  hill,  where  do  you  begin  to  ascend  ? 
At  the  base.  You  may  call  that  part  of  the  base  at  which  you 
begin  to  ascend,  the  foot  of  the  hill.  What  part  of  anything  do 
we  call  its  foot  ?  The  lowest  part.  Now  point  to  the  foot  of  the 
mountain  or  hill  on  this  model.  Where  do  you  begin  to  go  up 
the  hill  ?  At  the  foot. 

Now  point  out  to  me  some  other  part  of  a  mountain.  The 
top.  This  is  called  the  summit.  What  part  of  a  mountain  would 
you  call  its  summit  ?  The  highest  part.  Now  tell  me  some  other 
part  that  you  observe.  Those  between  the  summit  and  the  base. 
These  are  called  the  sides  of  the  mountain.  When  you  look  down- 
ward from  the  summit  of  a  mountain,  what  appearance  have  the 
sicles  ?  They  seem  to  slope  downward.  And  when  you  look  at 
them  from  the  base,  what  appearance  have  they  ?  They  seem  to 
slope  upward.*  The  children  should  then  repeat  together  the 
names  of  the  several  parts  of  a  mountain,  and  describe  each  of 
them. 

The  teacher  may  now  propose  that  the  children  should  help  to 
describe  a  walk  up  a  mountain,  supplying  whatever  they  may  omit 
to  notice.  We  came  first  to  the — foot — of  the  mountain ;  we 
then  began — to  go  up  the  side — with  some — difficulty  ;  at  last  we 
arrived  at  the — summit, — where  the  wind  blew  fresh,  and  we 
could  see  the  country  on  every  side  to  a  great  distance.  When 
we  had  rested,  we — came  down  the,  side — of  the  mountain,  which 
we  did  much  more — easily — and — quickly — than  we  went  up,  and 
at  last  came  again  to  the — base. 

LESSON  4. 

A  Chain  of  Mountains — Valleys. 

What  do  we  call  elevated  portions  of  land  ?  Hills  and  moun- 
tains. A  mountain  seldom  stands  alone.  Look  at  this  chart. 

*  These  questions  may  seem  tedious  and  unnecessary,  but  it  is  by  such  teach- 
ing that  children  are  led  to  realize  that  which  is  brought  before  them. 


ELEMENTARY   GEOGRAPHY. THIRD   STEP.  285 

What  do  you  notice  as  to  the  mountains?  Many  of  them  are 
joined  together:  Try  to  find  out  a  word  to  express  the  idea  of  a 
set  of  mountains  of  which  one  joins  another,  and  that  another, 
and  so  on.  What  do  you  call  a  number  of  rings  of  metal,  when 
thus  joined  together  ?  A  chain.  What,  then,  do  you  think 
would  be  a  proper  name  for  a  set  of  mountains  which  are  joined 
together  -in  a  somewhat  similar  manner  ?  A  chain  of  mountains. 

Now  look  at  this  representation  of  a  chain  of  mountains,  and 
tell  me  anything  you  notice. 

The  children  will  observe  that  smaller  mountains  run  from  the 
sides  of  the  principal  chain,  and  that  deep  hollows  are  left  between 
the  several  elevations. 

You  know  what  the  land  is  called  when  it  is  flat  or  even  for  a 
considerable  distance?  A  plain.  And  you  know  what  it  is 
called  when  it  rises  up,  but  not  very  high  ?  A  hiU.  And  what 
is  it  called  when  it  rises  higher  than  a  hill  ?  A  mountain.  I 
think  there  are  some  parts  of  the  picture  you  have  just  examined 
which  you  can  neither  call  a  mountain,  hill,  or  plain.  The  land 
that  lies  between  the  mountains.  What  can  you  say  of  it  ?  It 
is  deep  and  hollow.  These  deeps  are  called  valleys.  Now  repeat 
together  :  "  The  hollow  land  that  lies  between  hills  or  mountains 
is  called  a  valley."  If  I  were  to  tell  you  that  I  was  going  into  a 
valley,  what  would  you  know  there  must  be  on  each  side  of  it  ? 
Hills  or  mountains.  Sometimes  such  mountains  are  very  near 
each  other.  Of  what  form  will  the  valley  be  in  such  a  case  ?  It 
will  be  narrow.  And  what  if  the  mountains  be  far  apart  ?  It 
will  then  be  a  broad  valley. 

LESSON  5. 

Mountains,  Plains,  and  Valleys — (Continued.) 

You  now  can  tell  me  three  different  forms  of  the  land  on  the 
earth's  surface.  It  may  be  a  plain,  a  mountain,  or  a  valley.  In 
which  of  these  do  you  think  it  would  be  most  pleasant  to  live  ? 
Supposing  the  wind  were  high,  and  it  were  piercingly  cold,  what 
would  be  the  feelings  of  people  living  on  a  flat  open  plain  ?  They 
would  be  very  cold.  Why  ?  Because  there  would  be  nothing  to 


286  ELEMENTARY   GEOGRAPHY. — THIRD   STEP. 

shelter  them  from  the  cold  blowing  wind  or  driving  storm.  A 
large  open  plain  is  a  very  cold  place  in  winter,  but  what  will  it  be 
in  summer  ?  What  are  you  glad  to  find  when  the  sun  shines  very 
powerfully  ?  Yes  ;  something  to  shelter  and  shade  you.  But 
would  you  expect  to  find  this  in  the  open  plain  ?  There  is  no 
rising  ground  in  such  places,  nor  will  you  find  trees,  for  they  do 
not  grow  well  in  such  exposed  places. 

Repeat  together  :  "  A  plain  is  cold  in  winter,  and  hot  in  sum- 
mer, because  it  is  open  to  the  cold  winds  and  hot  sun.  It  has  no 
mountains  or  trees  to  afford  shelter." 

In  what  other  place  might  you  live  ?  In  a  valley.  Of  what 
kind  of  valleys  have  we  spoken  ?  Of  narrow  valleys  and  broad 
valleys.  When  is  a  valley  narrow  ?  When  the  hills  or  moun- 
tains between  which  it  lies  are  near  each  other.  When  a  valley 
is  very  narrow,  and  its  direction  north  and  south,  what  sunlight 
will  it  have  ?  The  sun  can  shine  fully  upon  it  only  when  it  is  in 
the  south.  Where  is  the  sun  in  the  morning  ?  In  the  east.  By 
what  will  it  be  prevented  from  shining  upon  such  a  valley  in  the 
morning  ?  By  the  mountains  on  the  eastern  side  of  it.  And 
what  will  prevent  the  setting  sun  from  being  seen  ?  The  moun- 
tains on  the  western  side.  When,  then,  will  the  inhabitants  have 
any  sun  ?  Only  for  a  short  time  in  the  middle  of  each  day. 
When  do  you  think  it  is  very  cold  in  such  a  valley  ?  When  the 
wind  blows  from  the  cold  north.  Yes ;  the  wind  blows  down 
such  valleys  in  strong  gusts,  and  the  air  does  not  circulate  freely  ; 
and  on  these  accounts  such  narrow  valleys  are  not  healthful.  In 
what  does  a  broad  valley  differ  from  these  ?  The  mountains 
bounding  it  are  widely  separated.  What  of  the  air  in  such  val- 
leys ?  It  can  freely  circulate.  What  advantages  have  such  val- 
leys over  the  wide  open  plain  ?  The  mountains  afford  a  shelter. 
Yes  ;  in  such  plains  you  find  the  air  pleasantly  blowing,  the  sun 
cheerfully  shining,  and  still  you  may  find  shelter  and  shade.  Now 
tell  me  where  you  would  like  to  live,  and  for  what  reasons  ?  * 

*  These  lessons  are  not  intended  to  complete  the  subjects  treated  of,  but  only 
to  suggest  the  mode  in  which  they  should  be  handled.  A  residence  on  a  moun- 
tain might  be  considered. 


ELEMENTAKT   GEOGRAPHY. — -TI1IKD   STEP.  287 

LESSON  6. 

Benefits  Derived  from  Mountains. 

We  have  still  much  to  learn  about  mountains,  for,  like  every- 
thing that  God  has  made,  they  exist  for  great  purposes.  I  will 
try  and  help  you  to  find  out  some  of  these.  When  you  are  at  the 
summit  of  a  mountain,  what  appearance  have  its  sides  ?  They 
slope  downward.  When  the  several  summits  of  a  chain  of  moun- 
tains are  joined  together,  they  form  a  ridge.  Do  you  know  any 
part  of  a  house  which  is  like  the  ridge  of  a  chain  of  mountains  ? 
The  roof.  And  why  are  roofs  made  to  slope  on  each  side  ?  That 
the  rain  may  flow  off  from  them.  Into  what  is  it  received  ?  Into 
gutters.  Something  very  like  this  happens  upon  mountains  and 
hills.  What  do  you  suppose  becomes  of  the  rain  which  Mis  upon 
them  ?  It  runs  down  the  sides.  There  is  always  a  great  deal  of 
rain  in  mountainous  countries,  for  the  mountains  attract  the  clouds, 
and  these  often  hang  so  heavily  about  them,  that  they  hide  their 
summits  from  our  view.  As  the  water  runs  down,  it  wears  away 
the  softer  parts  of  the  earth,  and  forms  grooves  or  channels.  Look 
for  these  on  the  chart,  and  tell  me  what  you  observe  in  them. 
Several  of  them  seem  to  unite.  And  what  will  they  then  form  ? 
At  first  small  streams,  and  then  rivers.  And  what  will  occur 
when  these  come  to  a  hollow  ?  The  streams  will  fill  it  with 
water.  Yes  ;  this  constantly  happens  on  mountains  ;  these  little 
streams  form  little  stores  of  water  to  supply  our  springs  and 
rivers. 

But  it  is  not  the  rain  that  flows  down  the  mountains  which 
alone  affords  us  water ;  the  tops  of  very  high  mountains  are  cov- 
ered with  snow.  Do  you  know  the  manner  in  which  this  does  its 
part  in  supplying  our  springs  and  rivers  ?  What  happens  to  snow 
in  summer  ?  It  dissolves,  and  becomes  water.  And  what  then 
takes  place  on  the  mountains  ?  The  water  from  the  dissolving 
snow  flows  down  their  sides.  Yes ;  and  in  the  countries  where  there 
are  snowy  mountains  there  are  always  rivers.  It  is  a  beautiful 
sight  to  see  the  little  streams  rushing  down  the  hills  and  feeding 
the  rivers  that  run  along  the  valleys,  and  to  think  they  are  all  per- 
forming their  appointed  work.  What  is  one  great  use  of  moun- 


288  ELEMENTARY    GEOGRAPHY. THIRD    STEP. 

tains  ?     To  supply  our  springs  and  rivers  with  water.     Yes  ;  we 
may  call  them  river-feeders. 

LESSON  7. 
Further  Benefits  Derived  from  Mountains. 

The  teacher  recalls  the  ideas  of  last  lesson  by  asking  the  chil- 
dren what  benefits  we  derive  from  mountains. 

We  derive  many  other  benefits  from  mountains  besides  those 
we  have  noticed.  They  contain  many  treasures.  Do  you  know 
of  what  hills  and  mountains  are  formed  ?  You  know  what  this 
is.  It  is  a  piece  of  chalk,  and  it  is  part  of  a  hill.*  We  do  not 
find  chalk  in  high  mountains,  but  in  hills.  What  happens  to  chalk 
when  it  is  rubbed  ?  It  crumbles.  And  what  do  you  think  hap- 
pens to  chalk  hills  when  the  water  rushes  down  their  sides  ? 
Some  of  the  chalk  is  carried  down  by  the  water.  If  water  is 
constantly  acting  upon  a  substance  not  very  hard,  what  form  does 
it  give  the  substance  ?  A  smooth  form.  For  this  reason  chalk 
hills  are  never  of  sharp  and  pointed  outline,  but  are  rounded  and 
gradually  sloping.  Here  is  a  piece  of  a  mountain.  What  is  this  ? 
It  is  a  piece  of  slate.  Large  portions  of  some  mountains  are 
formed  of  slate,  which  is  so  useful  for  roofing  our  houses,  and  many 
other  purposes.  Here  is  another  substance,  of  which  many  moun- 
tains are  composed ;  it  is  called  limestone,  and  is  most  useful  in 
building. 

The  children  should  not  at  present  be  detained  on  the  geologi- 
•  cal  structure  of  mountains  longer  than  they  may  gain  an  idea  of 
their  formation,  and  of  the  benefit  we  may  derive  from  them. 

The  children  may  repeat  together :  "  Mountains  are  useful  to 
us  as  being  river-feeders,  and  as  containing  abundant  mineral 
treasures." 

LESSON  8. 
Lakes. 

Into  what  did  we  say  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  divided  ? 
Into  land  and  water.  Have  you  anywhere  seen  a  quantity  of 

*  Whilst  these  lessons  are  being  given,  the  children's  object  lessons  should 
be  on  mineral  substances. 


ELEMENTARY    GEOGRAPHY. THIRD   STEP.  289 

water  ?  You  have  seen  a  pond ;  tell  me  what  it  is.  It  is  a  piece 
of  water.  What  must  there  be  in  the  land  to  hold  the  water  ? 
A  hollow.  There  must  be  a  hollow  place  in  the  land  to  contain 
the  water ;  and  what  will  there  be  round  the  edge  of  the  water  ? 
The  ground,  or  land.  "What  differences  have  you  noticed  in 
ponds  ?  They  differ  in  size.  But  in  what  are  they  alike?  They 
all  consist  of  a  hollow  in  the  ground,  which  is  full  of  water.  The 
water  is  bordered  by  the  land.  Yes  ;  you  can  walk  round  a  pond. 
Sometimes  such  pieces  of  water  are  very  large — so  large  that  you 
cannot  see  how  far  they  reach ;  and  it  would  require  many  hours 
for  you  to  go  from  one  end  to  the  other.  These  large  ponds  are 
called  lakes.  In  what  are  lakes  like  ponds  ?  They  consist  of 
water  in  deep  hollows,  with  the  land  round  them. 

Repeat  together :  "  A  large  piece  of  water  surrounded  by  land 
is  called  a  lake" 

LESSON  9. 

Rivers. 

What  is  a  lake  ?  In  what  is  it  like  a  pond  ?  Have  you  ever 
seen  any  water  that  is  not  surrounded  by  land,  and  round  which 
you  could  not  walk  ?  The  children  will  in  all  probability  have 
seen  a  stream  or  a  river ;  if  not,  the  picture  must  be  used  to 
give  them  an  idea  of  it.  They  should  endeavor  to  find  out  the 
difference  between  a  lake  and  a  river.  Tell  me  all  you  observe  in 
a  river.  A  river  is  long.  What  do  you  observe  of  the  land  at 
the  bottom  of  the  river  ?  It  is  hollow.  Is  it  like  the  hollow 
place  that  holds  the  water  of  the  lake  ?  In  what  does  it  differ  ? 
It  is  narrow,  like  a  groove.  It  is  called  the  channel,  or  the  bed 
of  the  river.  Find  some  other  parts  of  a  river.  The  sides.  Of 
what  are  the  sides  of  a  river  formed?  Of  the  earth  or  land. 
These  are  called  the  banks  of  the  river.  The  banks  of  rivers  are 
often  very  green,  producing  beautiful  flowers  ;  do  you  know  what 
occasions  this  ?  The  water  of  the  river  gently  moistens  the  soil, 
and  makes  it  fertile. 

Look  at  this  picture,  and  tell  me  where  the  rivers  begin  ? 
They  begin  near  mountains.  What  did  we  call  mountains? 
River-feeders.  Now  tell  me  where  the  rivers  end  ?  Some  end 
13 


290  ELEMENTARY    GEOGRAPHY. — THIRD   STEP. 

in  lakes,  and  others  in  the  sea.  The  spot  at  which  they  begin  is 
called  the  source,  and  that  at  which  they  empty  themselves  into 
some  large  collection  of  water,  as  a  lake  or  sea,  is  called  the 
mouth.  What  more  can  you  say  of  the  water  of  the  river ;  is  it 
still  water  ?  No ;  it  is  flowing  water.  The  little  streams  rush 
down  the  mountains,  and  open  into  the  rivers ;  what  must  they  do 
to  the  rivers  ?  They  supply  them  with  water.  Through  what 
kind  of  land  does  the  river  flow  ?  Often  through  valleys  and  low 
grounds,  receiving  supplies  from  all  the  little  streams  as  it  flows 
along.  And  what  good  does  a  river  do  in  its  course  ?  It  waters 
the  country  through  which  it  passes,  and  supplies  animals  and 
vegetables  with  that  which  they  need  for  the  support  of  life.  And 
what  more  ?  It  supplies  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  with 
water.  Is.  it  of  any  other  use  ?,  Have  you  ever  seen  anything 
borne  on  the  water  ?  Boats  and  barges.  Why  were  they  float- 
ing on  the  water  ?  They  were  going  on  the  water  from  one  place 
to  another.  Yes  ;  and  there  were  people  living  on  those  vessels, 
and  travelling  easily  with  their  goods  from  place  to  place. 

Now  tell  me  the  parts  of  a  river.  The  bed  or  channel,  the 
banks,  the  source,  and  the  mouth.  Now  tell  me  the  uses  of  riv- 
ers. To  sustain  the  life  of  animals  and  vegetables,  to  supply  us 
with  water  for  many  useful  purposes,  to  float  us  along  from  one 
place  to  another. 

LESSON  10. 
The  Sea. 

Where  is  water  found  ?  In  ponds,  lakes,  and  rivers.  Yes ; 
but  there  are  places  where  you  will  find  much  more  water  than  in 
these.  Do  you  remember  into  what  we  said  that  the  earth's  sur- 
face is  divided  ?  Into  land  and  water.  There  is  more  water 
than  land.  Do  you  know  what  that  very  large  body  of  water  is  < 
called,  upon  which  so  many  ships  sail  ?  The  sea.  Can  any  of 
you  tell  me  anything  about  the  sea  ?  Do  you  know  the  taste  of 
sea  water  ?  It  is  salt.  What  can  you  say  of  the  surface  of  the 
sea  ?  It  is  often  rough.  What  makes  it  rough  ?  The  waves. 
What  are  these  ?  They  are  the  water  of  the  sea  disturbed  by  the 
wind. 


ELEMENTARY   GEOGEAPI1Y. — THIRD   STEP.  291 

In  giving  lessons  upon  the  sea,  much  depends  upon  the  local- 
ity in  which  the  children  reside.  If  there  is  an  opportunity  of  look- 
ing at  the  sea,  some  very  useful  lessons  may  be  given,  calling 
observation, into  activity;  but  if  the  children  have  not  seen  the 
ocean,  it  may  be  well  to  leave  the  subject,  till,  at  a  later  period, 
they  take  up  a  fuller  course  of  physical  geography,  when  their 
conceptive  faculties  can  be  more  fully  brought  to  bear  on  the  sub- 
ject. At  this  early  stage,  it  will  be  enough  that  they  understand 
that  a  large  portion  of  our  globe  is  covered  with  salt  water,  ever 
heaving  and  flowing,  and  that  in  size  and  depth  the  sea  is  greater 
than  anything  they  can  imagine  ;  that  the  ocean,  as  well  as  every 
other  work  of  God,  is  formed  for  some  wise  purpose  ;  that  it  also 
has  an  office  to  fulfil,  in  which  it  obeys  the  laws  of  infinite  wis- 
dom, goodness,  and  power. 

The  children  may  now  take  an  outline  map  of  the  county, 
which  may  be  treated  in  the  same  general  way  as  the  city  map. 
In  the  next  step  or  grade  they  may  take  the  outline  map  of  the 
State,  and  then  of  the  United  States,  before  going  to  the  map  of 
the  world. 


THE    HUMAN    BODY. 


INTRODUCTORY   REMARKS. 

LESSONS  on  the  human  body  are  a  good  introduction  to  the 
study  of  the  natural  history  of  the  animal  creation.  They  form  a 
commencement  quite  in  accordance  with  the  Pestalozzian  principle 
of  starting  from  the  known.  Children  should  be  somewhat  familiar 
with  their  own  frame;  they  ought  to  have  correct  ideas  on  that 
which  so  nearly  concerns  themselves.  The  subject  is  also  ever 
present,  requiring  nothing  for  its  illustration  other  than  that  which 
is  common  to  all.  Such  lessons  will  furnish  opportunity  for  cor- 
recting any  vague  and  imperfect  notion  the  children  may  have 
acquired,  for  supplying  them  with  a  vocabulary  of  expressive 
terms,  and  for  giving  them  such  an  acquaintance  with  their  own 
organization,  as  may  make  it  a  standard  for  comparison  with  that 
of  other  animals,  thus  preparing  them  to  understand  many  won- 
derful details  in  the  modification  and  adaptation  of  the  organs  of 
animals  to  their  peculiar  habits,  propensities,  and  localities. 

The  following  exercises  are  designed  as  First  Step  lessons : 

First  Object. — To  lead  the  children  to  a  consideration  of  their 
own  organs,  and  to  teach  them  a  proper  nomenclature. 

Plan. — The  children  to  touch  any  part  of  their  body,  when 
the  teacher  gives  the  name  ;  as,  the  eye,  ear,  shoulder,  leg,  foot ; 
the  right  hand,  the  left  hand ;  the  arm,  hand,  fist,  &c. 

The  teacher  next  to  touch  these  different  parts,  the  children 
giving  the  names  ;  as,  You  are  touching  your  head,  your  eyes, 
your  chin,  cheeks,  legs,  &c. ;  being  required  to  express  the  idea  in 
a  short  sentence,  instead  of  merely  naming  the  part. 


THE   HUMAN   BODY.  293 

Sketch  of  a  Lesson  on  the  Parts  of  the  Principal  Parts  of  the  Body. 

The  teacher  to  touch  one  of  the  arms  of  a  child,  asking  the 
other  children  to  say  what  part  of  the  person  she  is  touching ; 
and  then  lead  them  to  notice  that  the  arm  also  has  parts.  An- 
other child  to  point  to  some  part  of  the  arm — the  shoulder,  for  in- 
stance— the  others  being  asked  its  name.  If  they  do  not  know, 
they  are  to  be  told  it  is  the  shoulder ;  and  so  on  with  the  other 
parts. 

The  teacher  next  to  desire  the  children  to  point  to  any  part 
of  the  body  she  may  name,  as  the  shoulder,  the  elbow,  the  upper 
arm,  forearm,  wrist,  or  hand.  If  any  mistake  is  made,  the  others 
to  correct  it. 

The  children  next  to  name  the  parts  to  which  the  teacher 
points ;  as,  the  elbow,  shoulder,  arm,  forearm,  wrist,  and  hand. 
Require  them  to  give  the  name  of  each  part. 

The  teacher  next  to  question  the  children  on  the  different 
parts,  as  to  their  number.  How  many  joints  have  the  arms?  also 
the  number  of*  fingers  on  one  hand,  and  the  number  of  joints  in 
each  finger  ?  If  they  make  a  mistake  in  the  number,  they  should 
correct  themselves  by  examining  their  own  arms  and  hands. 

The  teacher  to  question  the  children  on  the  use  of  each  part 
of  the  arm,  commencing  with  the  shoulder  joint.  To  call  upon 
them  to  say  what  they  could  not  do  if  they  had  not  that  joint ; 
asking  them  to  try  and  lift  their  hand  to  their  head  without  bend- 
ing that  joint,  &c.  In  the  same  way,  to  ask  them  to  tell  the  use 
of  each  of  the  other  parts  of  the  arm,  and  lead  them  to  discover 
the  action  and  utility  of  the  joints  of  the  arm  and  fingers. 

Second  Object. — To  make  the  children  well  acquainted  with 
the  principal  parts  of  the  body,  and  to  lead  them  to  compare  them 
with  the  different  forms  of  the  corresponding  organs  in  other 
animals. 

Plan. — Shown  in  the  following  hints  for  lessons  : 

1.  What  is  the  upper  part  of  the  body  called?*     The  head. 

*  In  order  that  these  lessons  may  be  brought  within  a  moderate  compass, 
the  answers  are  not  given  where  they  are  quite  obvious.  Teachers  should  re- 
member that  those  which  are  put  down  are  not  to  be  told  to  the  children,  but 
rather  to  be  drawn  from  them. 


294  THE    HITMAN    BODY. 

"What  is  the  largest  part  of  it  called  ?  The  trunk.  "What  have 
you  besides  a  head  and  a  trunk?  Arms  and  legs.  What  are 
these  called  ?  Limbs.  Now  tell  me  the  three  principal  parts  of 
your  body.  The  head,  the  trunk,  and  the  limbs. 

2.    The  Limbs. 

How  many  limbs  have  you?  What  are  the  upper  limbs 
called  ?  What  are  the  lower  limbs  called  ?  How  many  legs 
have  we  ?  How  many  legs  has  the  dog,  the  cat,  the  horse  ? 
Tell  me  some  other  animals  that  have  four  legs.  How  many 
more  legs  have  these  animals  than  we  have  ?  What  is  the 
consequent  difference  in  their  way  of  standing  ?  In  what  does 
the  position  of  our  body  differ  from  theirs  ?  How  is  this 
suited  to  our  different  manner  of  eating  and  habits  of  life  ? 
What  limbs  have  we  ?  Two  legs  and  two  arms.  How  many 
limbs  have  the  animals  we  have  been  talking  about  ?  What 
are  their  limbs  ?  What  difference  is  there  then  between  these 
animals  and  ourselves  ?  Yes ;  they  have  two  legs,  where  we 
have  two  arms.  What  do  you  call  those  legs  which  they 
have  in  the  place  of  our  arms  ?  Fore  legs.  What  do  you  call 
the  other  pair  ?  Hind  legs.  Tell  me  some  other  animals  besides 
man  that  have  only  two  legs.*  What  have  birds  in  place  of 
arms  ?  What  can  birds  do  with  their  wings,  which  they  could 
not  do  if  they  had  only  legs?  Where  are  the  legs  of  birds 
placed  ?  Where  are  ours  placed  ?  How  is  the  body  of  birds 
placed  ?  Compare  its  position  with  the  position  of  our  body. 
What  animals  move  without  either  arms,  legs,  or  wings  ?  How 
do  worms  move  ?  What  other  animals  besides  worms  and  ser- 
pents have  no  limbs  ?  Where  do  fish  live  ?  How  do  they 
move  ?  What  have  they  where  we  have  limbs  ?  Now  you  have 
told  me  of  some  animals  that  have  two  legs,  of  some  that  have 
four,  and  of  some  that  have  none ;  can  you  mention  some  little 
animals  that  differ  from  any  of  these  ?  How  many  legs  has  a  fly 
or  bee  ?  Tell  me  some  other  animals  that  have  six  legs.  A  but- 

*  Children  might  here  describe  the  actions  performed  by  the  leg  in  man, 
and  compare  them  with  the  different  actions  of  other  animals. 


THE   HUMAN   BODY.  295 

terfly,  a  wasp,  a  beetle,  a  lady-bird,  &c.  What  do  you  call  all 
these  animals  ?  Insects.  How  many  legs  have  insects  ?  Insects 
have  six  legs.  How  do  insects  move  on  the  ground  ?  How  do 
they  move  in  the  air  ? 

As  a  summary  of  this  lesson,  the  children  should  state  how 
animals  differ  as  to  the  number  of  their  legs,  and  as  to  their  move- 
ments, giving  examples  of  each  variety. 

3.    The  Joints. 

What  can  we  do  with  our  legs  ?  In  how  many  places  can 
we  bend  them  ?  Try  and  find  out.  In  three  places.  The  place 
where  we  bend  a  limb  is  called  a  joint.  What  can- we  do  at  a 
joint?  Where  is  the  lowest  joint  of  the  leg?  Move  your  leg, 
and  find  out.  At  the  ankle.  That  is  called  the  ankle  joint. 
How  many  ankle  joints  have  you  ?  Which  is  the  highest  place 
at  which  we  move  the  leg  ?  At  the  hip.  That  is  called  the  hip 
joint.  How  many  hip  joints  have  we  ?  Where  is  the  middle 
joint  of  the  leg  ?  How  many  knee  joints  have  we  ?  Now  tell 
me  all  the  joints  of  the  legs  ?  Two  ankle  joints,  /two  knee  joints, 
two  hip  joints.  How  many  joints  have  we  altogether  in  the  legs? 
When  do  we  make  use  of  our  legs  without  bending  any  joint  in 
them  ?  When  do  we  bend  the  knee  joint  only  ?  When  do  we 
bend  both  the  hip  and  knee  joint  ?  When  do  we  bend  all  three 
joints  of  the  leg  ?  Describe  our  joints  when  we  sit  down.  When 
we  sit  down,  we  bend  the  joint  at  the  hip,  and  that  at  the  knee 
also. 

Summary. — The  different  joints  ;  what  they  are  ;  their  use  ; 
how  many  in  each  leg ;  whether  the  same  in  other  animals. 

4.    The  Lower  Limbs. 

What  do  you  call  that  part  of  the  lower  Hmb  between  the  hip 
and  the  knee?  The  thigh.  And  what  the  part  between  the 
knee  and  ankle  ?  The  leg.  What  kind  of  substance  is  that 
which  is  at  the  hinder  part  of  the  leg  ?  What  do  you  call  that 
fleshy  part  ?  The  bone  in  front  of  the  leg  is  called  the  shin  hone. 
What  part  is  called  the  calf  of  the  leg  ?  That  between  the  knee 


296  THE   HUMAN    BODY 

and  ankle,  at  the  back  of  the  leg.  Where  are  the  shin  bones  ? 
In  front  of  the  leg.  Now  tell  me  where  the  thigh  is.  Between 
the  hip  and  knee.  Into  how  many  parts  may  the  lower  limb  be 
divided  ? 

5.    The  Feet. 

Upon  what  do  we  stand  ?  Where  are  our  feet  ?  How  are 
we  able  to  stand  upon  our  feet  ?  They  are  wide  and  flat,  and  so 
placed  on  our  legs  as  to  rest  on  the  ground.  How  many  feet  have 
we  ?  Think  of  all  the  different  kinds  of  feet  which  animals  have. 
What  kind  of  feet  have  birds  ?  How  do  birds  move  with  their 
feet  ?  What,  more  do  birds  do  with  their  feet  ?  How  have  you 
seen  hens  use  their  feet  ?  Yes ;  scratching  up  the  earth,  which 
they  easily  do  with  their  long  claws.  And  how  do  they  use  their 
claws  when  they  sleep  ?  The  claws  of  birds  are  so  formed  that 
they  cling  more  tightly  when  the  bird  is  asleep,  so  that  it  does  not 
lose  its  hold.  What  differences  have  you  observed  in  the  feet  of 
birds  ?  In  what  respect  do  the  feet  of  ducks  differ  from  those  of 
hens  ?  .  They  have  a  skin  stretched  between  the  claws.  Yes ; 
this  kind  of  foot  is  called  a  web-foot.  Of  what  use  is  a  foot  of  this 
kind  to  ducks  ?  Why,  then,  have  hens  and  ducks  such  different 
feet  ?  What  kind  of  feet  have  cats  and  dogs  ?  What  kind  of 
feet  have  horses  and  cows  ?  Tell  me  some  animals  having  hoofs. 
What  is  the  difference  between  the  hoof  of  a  cow  and  that  of  a 
horse  or  an  ass  ?  The  hoof  of  the  cow  is  a  cloven  hoof.  Tell  me 
some  animals  that  have  cloven  hoofs.  Upon  what  do  animals 
which  have  hoofs  feed?  What  do  cows,  horses,  &c.,  eat?  In 
what  way  do  they  eat  ?  They  put  their  heads  down  to  the  grass, 
and  bite  it  off.  Why  have  they  no  need  of  claws  to  lay  hold  of 
their  food  ?  What  kind  of  feet  have  cats  ?  Tell  me  some  other 
animals  having  paws.  What  do  lions,  tigers,  and  wolves  feed 
upon  ?  What  are  cats  fond  of  catching  ? 

Try  and  find  out  why  God  has  wisely  given  claws  to  those 
animals  that  have  to  catch  the  prey  they  feed  upon,  and  hoofs  to 
those  which  feed  on  grass  ?  How  does  God  show  his  care  for 
animals  in  the  different  kind  of  feet  which  He  has  given  them  ? 
You  see  that  God  takes  care  that  every  animal  has  that  which  is 


THE   HUMAN   BODY.  297 

necessary  for  it.  If  He  takes  such  care  of  animals,  what  may  we 
feel  sure  He  will  do  for  us  ?  And  as  we  can  speak,  what  should 
we  do  when  He  gives  us  so  much  ? 

Now  tell  me  a  part  of  the  foot.  The  toe.  How  many  toes 
have  we  on  one  foot  ?  How  many  on  both  ?  "What  can  we  do 
with  our  toes  ?  What  do  you  call  the  places  where  we  can  bend 
our  toes  ?  What  have  our  toes  besides  joints  ?  What  difference 
do  you  observe  when  you  hit  or  cut  your  nails,  and  when  you  do 
the  same  to  any  part  of  your  flesh  ?  What  can  you  then  say  of 
the  nails  ?  The  nails  have  no  sensation.  Why  are  they  placed 
at  the  end  of  our  toes  ?  To  guard  that  part  which  is  most  sensi- 
tive, and  most  exposed  to  injury. 

Tell  me  some  other  part  of  the  foot.  The  lowest  part  is  called 
the  sole.  Where  is  the  sole  of  the  foot  ?  There  are  some  other 
parts  of  the  foot  which  you  have  not  mentioned.  Yes  ;  the  part 
that  rises  up  in  front ;  it  is  called  the  instep.  What  causes  it  to 
rise  up  ?  Where  is  the  instep  ?  The  instep  is"  in  front  of  the 
foot,  and  rises  up  between  the  toes  and  the  ankle  bones.  What 
is  there  at  the  back  of  the  foot  ?  Where  is  the  heel  ?  Repeat 
the  different  parts  of  the  leg  and  foot. 

And  now  tell  me  what  it  is  that  makes  the  legs  stiff  and 
strong,  and  able  to  support  us.  WThat  covers  the  bones  ?  What 
covers  the  flesh  ?  What  makes  the  flesh  look  pinkish  ? 

How  do  we  use  our  feet  ?  What  is  the  difference  between 
running  and  walking  ?  How  do  we  use  our  feet  when  we  jump  ? 
How  when  we  hop  ?  W^hat  do  naughty  children  sometimes  do  with 
their  feet  ?  What  makes  them  kick  ?  They  give  way  to  anger 
and  passion.  Whom  does  this  always  displease  ?  Why  does  it 
displease  God  ?  All  sudb.  misuse  of  useful  members  displeases  the 
great  God  whose  eye  is  ever  upon  us,  and  who  sees  when  we  are 
angry  or  in  a  passion.  Tell  me  some  texts  that  teach  us  how  we 
ought  to  feel  and  act  toward  each  other. 

Summary. — The  use,  position,  and  number  of  the  feet  in  man ; 
the  parts  described  ;  the  differing  feet  of  animals  ;  and  what  we 
learn  in  these  things  of  the  wisdom  and  goodness  of  the  Creator. 

13* 


298  THE   HUMAN   BODY. 

6.  The  Arms. 

What  are  the  upper  limbs  called  ?  How  many  arms  have 
we  ?  Where  are  our  arms  placed  ?  At  the  upper  part  of  the 
body,  on  either  side  of  the  trunk.  In  what  direction  are  they 
placed  ?  What  advantage  is  it  that  they  come  forward  ?  How 
many  joints  are  there  in  one  arm  ?  Try  where  you  can  bend 
your  arm.  Which  is  the  lowest  joint  of  the  arm  ?  It  is  called 
the  wrist.  Which  is  the  uppermost  joint  ?  The  shoulder  joint. 
Wnich  is  the  middle  joint  ?  The  elbow.  That  part  between  the 
shoulder  and  elbow  is  called  the  arm  ;  the  part  between  the  elbow 
and  wrist  is  called  the  fore  arm.  Point  to  the  fore  arm  ;  to  the 
arm.  Tell  me  where  the  fore  arm  is ;  where  the  arm  is.  What 
is  below  the  wrist  ? 

7.  The  Hands. 

Tell  me  the  different  parts  of  the  hand.  The  inside  of  the 
hand  is  called  the  palm  of  the  hand.  Show  me  the  palm  of  the 
hand.  What  do  you  call  those  bones  on  the  back  of  the  hand 
which  project  ?  The  knuckle  bones.  What  use  do  we  make  of 
the  knuckles  ?  What,  then,  are  the  knuckles  ?  How  many 
fingers  have  we  ?  Tell  me  the  different  parts  of  a  ringer.  How 
many  joints  are  there  on  each  finger  ?  How  many  on  all  the 
fingers  of  one  hand  ?  What  is  the  use  of  the  nails  ?  Where  are 
they  placed  ?  Why  are  they  so  placed  ?  W  hat  kind  of  sub- 
stance is  the  nail  ?  Horny.  Find  out  some  uses  in  its  being 
horny.  It  guards  the  tender  part  of  the  fingers,  making  them 
most  useful  in  various  delicate  operations.  What  other  part  of 
the  body  is  without  feeling  ?  What  are  those  parts  of  animals 
which  have  no  feeling  ?  What  are  the  names  of  the  several 
fingers  ?  The  thumb,  fore  finger,  middle  finger,  ring  finger,  little 
finger.  What  do  you  call  this  hand  (holding  up  the  right  hand)  ? 
What  this  ?  Now  tell  me,  as  I  hold  up  a  finger,  what  particular 
finger  it  is,  and  of  which  hand.  Middle  finger  of  left  hand;  fore 
finger  of  right  hand,  &c.  What  is  the  shape  of  the  fingers  ? 
How  do  the  fingers  differ  ?  What  can  we  do  with  our  hands  ? 
In  what  manner  do  we  pick  up  anything  ?  How  do  we  hold  a 


THE   HUMAN   BODY.  299 

needle  ?  Why  cannot  we  use  our  toes  in  the  same  manner  as  our 
fingers  ?  Because  the  toes  are  all  placed  in  a  row ;  but  the  thumb 
can  be  brought  opposite  to  the  fingers,  and  thus  the  hand  is  fitted 
to  lay  hold  of  things.*  How  can  women  fully  employ  their 
hands  ?  How  can  men  use  their  hands  in  earning  their  daily 
bread  ?  "What  animals  have  hands  ?  Monkeys.  How  many 
hands  have  monkeys  ?  Where  do  monkeys  live  ?  In  trees. 
What  is  the  use  of  their  hands  ?  To  lay  hold  of  the  branches. 
How,  then,  are  they  well  fitted  to  live  in  trees  ?  They  have  four 
hands  to  lay  hold  of  the  branches  of  the  trees.  Can  the  monkey 
point  at  anything  with  the  first  finger,  as  you  can  ?  No ;  man 
only  can  do  this ;  he  has  on  this  account  been  called  "  the  point- 
ing animal." 

Summary. — To  repeat  all  the  different  parts  of  the  arm  and 
hand ;  and  the  adaptation  of  hand  and  foot  to  their  respective 
offices. 

8.    The  Head. 

You  have  now  told  me  about  the  arms  and  legs.  By  what 
other  name  may  we  call  our  arms  and  legs  ?  To  what  are  the 
limbs  joined  ?  Where  is  each  placed  ?  The  arms  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  trunk  move  forward  ready  to  lay  hold  of  things ;  the 
legs  at  the  lower  part,  and  in  a  line  with  the  body,  to  keep  it 
erect.  What  is  at  the  top  of  the  trunk  ?  What  do  you  feel  when 
you  touch  your  head  ?  The  bone  of  the  head  is  called  the  skull. 
Within  the  skull  is  the  brain — a  very  tender  organ ;  how  is  it 
guarded  ?  What  is  the  front  of  the  head  called  ?  Tell  me  the 
different  parts  of  the  face ;  begin  at.  the  top.  The  forehead. 
What  are  on  the  sides  of  the  forehead  ?  The  temples.  Where 
is  the  forehead  ?  At  the  top  of  the  face,  above  the  eyes ;  be- 
tween the  temples.  What  is  next  to  the  forehead  ? 

9.    The  Eyes,  and  Sense  of  Sight. 
How  many  eyes  have  we  ?    What  do  you  call  this  eye  ?    The 

*  It  should  be  made  obvious  to  the  children,  that  as  the  foot  is  well  formed 
to  support  the  body,  so  is  the  hand  for  an  organ  of  prehension,  that  they  may 
be  led  to  see  how  beautifully  the  Creator  has  adapted  everything  to  its  appointed 
work. 


300  THE   HUMAN    BODY. 

right  eye.  And  this  ?  The  left  eye.  Look  at  the  eye  of  the 
child  next  to  you,  and  tell  me  the  different  parts  of  it.  Look  at 
the  middle  of  the  eye.  The  dark  spot  is  called  the  pupil.  Look 
and  see  if  it  is  the  same  in  every  eye.  "What  is  it  called  ?  "What 
do  you  observe  round  it  ?  That  colored  ring  round  the  pupil  is 
called  the  iris.  Look  and  see  if  the  iris  is  the  same  in  every  eye. 
In  some  it  is  blue,  in  some  brown,  &c.  In  what  are  the  pupil  and 
iris  placed  ?  That  part  of  the  eye  which  is  round  like  a  ball  is 
called  the  eyeball.  How  many  eyeballs  have  we  ?  What  have 
we  in  the  eyeball  ?  In  what  part  of  the  eyeball  is  the  pupil  of 
the  eye  ?  In  the  front  of  it.  Tell  me  exactly  where  the  pupil 
of  the  eye  is  ?  The  pupil  is  in  the  middle  of  the  front  of  the 
eyeball,  and  has  the  iris  around  it.  Where  is  the  eye  placed  ?  In 
a  sort  of  cup  in  the  skull.  This  is  called  the  socket  or  orbit  of  the 
eye.  By  what  is  the  eye  covered  ?  How  many  eyelids  have  we 
to  each  eye  ?  What  do  you  call  the  eyelid  nearest  the  forehead  ? 
What  the  other  ?  What  eyelid  am  I  touching  ?  *  The  upper 
eyelid  of  the  right  eye.  What  is  at  the  edge  of  the  eyelids  ? 
What  do  you  call  the  hairs  at  the  edge  of  the  eyelids  ?  Are 
there  any  other  hairs  near  the  eye  ?  What  are  these  called  ? 
What  is  the  form  of  -the  eyebrows  ?  Where  are  they  placed  ? 

Now  try  and  tell  me  what  you  think  is  the  great  use  of  the 
eye  ?  What  do  you  call  those  who  cannot  see  ?  When  is  it  that 
we  who  have  sight,  cannot  see  ?  When  it  is  dark.  What,  then, 
is  necessary  to  enable  us  to  see  ?  Where  does  light  come  from  ? 
When  do  we  lose  the  light  of  the  sun  ?  From  what  other  natu- 
ral object  have  we  light  ?  When  does  the  moon  give  us  light  ? 
What  happens  when  we  have  neither  moon  nor  sun  ?  We  have 
no  natural  light,  and  cannot  see,  when  neither  the  sun  nor  moon 
shines. 

Now  listen  seriously  to  me,  and  I  will  tell  you  a  truth  like  this 
about  our  souls.  God  must  send  the  light  of  his  Holy  Spirit  into 
our  souls,  or  we  shall  not  know  what  to  do  to  please  Him,  or  how 
to  walk  in  the  way  of  his  commandments.  What,  then,  must  we 

*  It  is  desirable  to  vary  the  lessons  by  a  change  in  the  kind  of  questions. 
The  hints  here  given  may  be  followed  out  and  extended  as  far  as  they  may  in- 
terest the  class. 


THE   HUMAN   BODY.  301 

pray  for  ?  David,  in  Psalm  xliii.  3,  prays  that  God  would  lead 
him  by  His  light. 

Now  tell  me  all  that  we  can  do  with  our  eyes,  besides  seeing 
with  them.  What  happens  when  we  weep  ?  Tears  fall.  "Why 
do  people  weep  ?  Sometimes  because  they  are  hurt ;  sometimes 
because  they  are  sorry  ;  sometimes  from  passion.  Is  it  ever  right 
to  weep  ?  Try  and  find  out  the  pleasures  which  we  enjoy  through 
our  sight.  What  are  the  uses  of  sight  ? 

You  see  now  that  for  many  reasons  the  eye  is  very  valuable 
to  us ;  and  our  kind  Heavenly  Father  has  taken  great  care  to 
guard  it  from  accident,  as  you  will  discover,  if  you  attend  to  me. 
Where  is  the  eye  placed  ?  It  is  lodged  in  a  hollow  socket,  sur- 
rounded by  bone,  just  as  if  it  were  in  a  box.  Now  tell  me  the 
bones  that  project  around  it.  What  is  above  it  ?  The  forehead. 
What  on  the  sides  ?  The  temples  and  the  nose.  What  below 
it  ?  The  cheek-bones.  These  cheek-bones,  like  walls,  guard  the 
eyes  from  being  hurt.*  Now  tell  me  exactly  how  the  eye  is 
placed.  How  does  the  eye  act  when  anything  comes  near  it  ? 
Observe  when  I  put  my  hand  quickly  near  this  child's  eye.  Yes ; 
the  eyelids  close  before  there  is  time  to  think  that  the  eye  is  in 
danger  of  being  hurt.  There  is  always  dust  floating  in  the  air ; 
how  is  it  that  we  are  so  seldom  inconvenienced  by  it  ?  The  fringe 
of  the  eyelashes  preserves  the  eye  from  dust ;  but  if  any  should 
fall  in,  what  immediately  happens  ?  Yes  ;  the  tears  at  once  begin 
to  flow,  and  carry  it  out  of  the  eye.  The  tears  also  keep  the  eye 
constantly  moist  and  clean. f  If  you  wished  to  have  something 
that  would  roll  about  easily,  of  what  shape  would  you  have  it  ? 
And  what  shape  is  the  ball  of  the  eye  ?  How,  then,  is  the  eye 
fitted  to  move  easily  ?  It  is  round  in  form. 

*  In  giving  this  lesson,  the  teacher  can  enter  into  more  details  as  to  the 
beautiful  protection  provided  for  the  eye,  and  draw  out  other  facts  from  the 
children  themselves. 

t  Should  the  party  consist  of  very  intelligent  children,  the  teacher  might 
lead  them  to  see  that  the  overhanging  eyebrow  protects  the  eye  like  the  roof  of 
a  cottage ;  that  the  iris  always  dilates,  making  the  pupil  smaller,  when  a  sudden 
or  strong  light  comes  near  the  eye,  so  that  less  light  enters ;  and  that  the  super- 
fluous moisture  of  the  eye  is  carried  into  the  nose,  where  it  moistens  the  lining 
membrane,  and  makes  the  sense  of  smell  more  delicate  than  it  could  other- 
wise be. 


302  THE   HUMAN   BODY. 

Summary. — Repetition  of  the  parts  of  trie  eye,  and  their  rela- 
tive position ;  the  manner  in  which  it  is  protected  from  injury ; 
the  wisdom  and  goodness  of  the  Creator;  the  advantages  and 
pleasures  connected  with  the  sense  of  sight. 

•  10.    The  Nose,  and  Sense  of  Smell. 

What  is  there  in  the  middle  of  your  face  ?  What  is  above 
the  nose  ?  what  below  it  ?  what  on  each  side  of  it  ?  How  does 
the  nose  help  in  guarding  the  eyes  from  injury  ?  Tell  me  the 
parts  of  the  nose.  The  holes  are  called  nostrils.  How  many 
nostrils  have  we  ?  How  are  they  divided  ?  By  gristle.  The 
end  of  the  nose  is  called  the  tip  ;  the  high  part  of  it,  the  bridge  ; 
the  outside  of  the  nostrils,  the  wings.  To  what  do  the  nostrils 
lead  ?  There  is  a  passage  through  them  to  the  back  of  the  mouth, 
through  which  we  breathe ;  and  there  is  also  a  passage  from  the 
eye  to  each  of  them,  through  which  the  fluid  which  cleanses  and 
moistens  the  eye  flows.  Of  what  use  is  the  nose  ?  Do  we  use 
the  nose  in  smelling  only  ?  How  do  we  feel  when  we  close  the 
nostrils  ?  We  cannot  breathe  freely.  Tell  me  some  animals  to 
which  the  sense  of  smell  is  very  useful.  What  animals  are  guided 
in  their  search  for  others  by  the  sense  of  smell  ?  Dogs  are  very 
remarkable  for  their  good  scent.  A  dog,  having  lost  his  master, 
has  been  known  to  follow  his  steps,  street  after  street,  through  a 
crowded  city,  by  his  scent.  What  use  does  man  make  of  dogs  in 
consequence  of  their  fine  scent  ?  Not  only  dogs,  but  many  other 
animals  are  directed  in  finding  their  food  by  this  faculty.  Some 
birds  have  wonderful  scent,  and  can  discover  putrid  flesh  at  a 
great  distance,  even  when  they  are  high  in  the  air ;  such  birds  are 
very  useful  in  clearing  away  that  which  would  make  the  air  very 
unhealthy.  What  animal  has  a  long  nose  called  a  snout?  How 
does  the  pig  use  its  snout  ?  Many  animals  besides  the  pig  use  the 
snout  in  grubbing  up  the  earth  to  get  at  roots  or  worms,  and  some 
use  it  for  making  in  the  earth  the  holes  in  which  they  live.  Can 
you  mention  any  of  these  ?  The  hedgehog  and  mole  ;  both  these 
animals  have  pointed  snouts  full  of  muscles,  which  make  them 
very  strong*  What  has  the  pig  at  the  end  of  its  snout  ?  This 
ring  of  gristle  helps  it  in  grubbing  up  the  earth.  What  animal 


THE   HUMAN    BODY.  303 

has  a  much  longer  snout  than  a  pig  ?  "What  is  it  called  ?  How 
can  the  elephant  use  its  trunk  ?  It  can  twist  it  about  in  e very- 
direction.  The  elephant's  trunk  is  most  useful  to  it.  Upon  what 
does  the  elephant  feed  ?  It  feeds  on  vegetables,  on  the  grass  and 
herbs  that  grow  on  the  ground,  and  also  on  boughs  of  trees.  Now 
look  at  this  picture  of  an  elephant.  Do  you  think  it  could  put  its 
mouth  down  to  the  ground  ?  or  could  it  raise  it  so  as  to  bite  off 
branches  ?  No  ;  it  could  not.  You  can  tell,  then,  the  use  of  its 
long  flexible  trunk.  With  its  trunk  it  uproots  the  grass  and  herbs 
on  the  ground,  and  snaps  off  the  young  twigs  from  the  trees  above, 
and  then  carries  them  to  its  mouth.  And  how  does  it  drink  ?  It 
draws  water  into  its  trunk,  and  conveys  it  to  its  mouth.  Tell  me 
what  use  we  make  of  the  nose.  Tell  me  the  different  uses  ani- 
mals make  of  it.  What  do  you  find,  when  the  nose  has  to  be 
used  for  other  purposes  than  smelling  ?  That  God  fits  it  for  its 
special  use  by  changing  its  form. 

Summary. — Position  of  the  nose ;  its  parts  and  uses ;  the 
diversity  of  its  form  in  different  animals. 

11.   The  Mouth,  and  the  Faculty  of  Speech. 

What  is  under  the  nose  ?  What  do  you  call  the  edges  of  the 
mouth  ?  How  many  lips  have  you  ?  What  do  you  call  the  lip 
nearest  the  nose  ?  What  the  other  ?  What  is  the  color  of  the 
lips  ?  What  can  we  do  with  our  lips  ?  Say  what  we  do  when 
we  smile  ?  How  do  we  use  our  lips  to  show  that  we  love  a  per- 
son ?  How  do  we  use  our  lips  in  eating  ?  Tell  me  the  different 
parts  of  the  mouth.  What  is  there  within  the  lips  ?  What  color 
are  the  teeth  ?  Of  what  are  they  made  ?  What  use  is  there  in 
their  being  so  hard  ?  What  are  the  parts  of  a  tooth  ?  The 
naked  part  of  a  tooth  is  called  the  crown  ;  the  part  fixed  in  the 
jaw  is  called  the  fang  or  root.  What  differences  do  you  observe 
in  the  teeth  ?  How  many  kinds  of  teeth  have  we  ?  Those  near- 
est the  lips  are  called  the  front  or  cutting  teeth.  What  sort  of  an 
edge  have  they  ?  A  sharp  edge  like  that  of  a  knife  or  scissors. 
What  use  is .  there  in  their  having  such  an  edge  ?  How  many 
cutting  teeth  have  we  ?  What  sort  of  teeth  come  next  to  the 


304:  THE    HUMAN    BODY. 

cutting  teeth  ?  Pointed  teeth.  These  are  called  the  eyeteeth. 
How  many  have  we  ?  And  what  other  teeth  have  we  ?  Those 
at  the  back  of  the  jaw  are  called  double  teeth,  or  grinders,  because 
we  grind  our  food  between  them.  In  what  are  our  teeth  set  ? 
How  many  jaws  have  we  ?  What  are  the  two  jaws  called  ? 
"Which  jaw  do  we  move  when  we  eat  ?  How  do  we  move  it  ? 
What  covers  the  jaws  ?  The  two  cheeks.  What  animals  have 
large  teeth  projecting  out  of  their  mouths  ?  Which  of  the  teeth 
are  very  large  in  some  animals  ?  They  are  called  tusks ;  such  ani- 
mals generally  use  them  either  in  defending  themselves,  or  in  destroy- 
ing their  prey.  What  sort  of  teeth  have  dogs  or  cats  ?  *  Lions, 
tigers,  and  wolves  have  the  same  kind  of  sharp-pointed  teeth. 
Now  call  to  mind  what  we  said  about  the  feet  of  these  animals. 
They  are  fitted  to  catch  their  prey.  What,  then,  is  the  use  of 
their  having  sharp-pointed  teeth  ?  To  tear  the  flesh  of  their  prey. 
What  kind  of  feet  have  cows,  horses,  &c.  ?  What  do  these  ani- 
mals feed  upon  ?  Did  you  ever  see  a  cow  lying  down  and  chew- 
ing ?  How  did  it  move  its  lower  jaw  ?  From  side  to  side.  What 
kind  of  teeth  has  it  ?  And  by  thus  moving  its  jaw  from  side  to 
side  it  bruises  its  vegetable  food  between  its  great  flat  grinders, 
till  it  becomes  a  soft  pulp.  What  part  of  an  animal  should  we 
examine  in  order  to  find  out  what  kind  of  food  it  eats  ?  God, 
who  gives  to  every  animal  t^e  desire  for  the  particular  food  that 
is  suitable  for  it,  gives  it  also  the  means  of  procuring  that  food, 
and  proper  teeth  wherewith  to  masticate  or  chew  it.  When  have 
we  no  teeth  ?  What  food  has  God  provided  for  infants  ?  Why, 
then,  do  infants  not  need  teeth  ?  What  is  there  in  the  middle  of 
the  mouth,  within  the  teeth  ?  -  In  what  do  we  use  the  tongue  ? 
In  talking  and  eating.  We  not  only  use  the  tongue  in  talking ; 
but  when  we  eat,  we  use  it  in  bringing  the  food  between  the  teeth, 
and  in  helping  us  to  swallow.  What  use  do  some  animals  make 
of  their  tongue  ?  f  What  do  you  call  that  which  the  dog  does 

*  If  the  children  cannot  answer  such  questions  from  their  own  knowledge, 
they  should  not  be  told;  but  a  cat  or  dog  should  be  brought  in  for  the  next  les- 
son, or  they  should  be  directed  to  observe  the  animal  at  home. 

f  Some  animals  use  their  tongues  as  an  organ  of  prehension.  The  cow  gath- 
ers the  grass  into  its  mouth  with  its  tongue,  and  the  cameleopard  twists  the 
tongue  round  the  boughs  of  trees. 


THE   HUMAN    BODY.  305 

when  he  drinks  ?  "What  other  animals  use  their  tongues  in  lap- 
ping ?  "What  kind  of  tongue  has  the  cat  ?  What  can  we  do 
with  the  mouth  ?  For  what  purposes  do  we  open  the  mouth  ? 
To  eat,  drink,  speak,  laugh,  gape,  scream,  sing,  whistle,  &c.  What 
parts  of  the  mouth  do  we  use  in  speaking  ?  Utter  some  words, 
and  observe.  We  open  and  shut  the  mouth.  And  how  do  we  use 
the  tongue  and  lips  ?  Observe  what  we  do  in  sounding  each  of  the 
five  vowels,  and  tell  me.  Observe  what  we  do  in  sounding  the  dif- 
ferent consonants,  and  tell  me.*  Can  we  utter  a  sound  by  merely 
opening  the  mouth,  and  putting  it  in  different  positions  ?  Try  and 
find  out  what  more  we  need  to  do.  To  whom  has  God  given  the 
power  of  speaking  ?  Tell  me  the  best  mode  of  using  this  power. 
When  do  we  make  a  bad  use  of  this  gift  of  God  ?  What  do  we 
call  those  who  cannot  speak  ?  Tell  me  the  different  sounds  that 
animals  make  with  their  mouths.  What  sound  do  we  make  when 
we  are  happy  ?  What  when  we  are  in  pain  ?  What  sound  is  a 
sign  of  mirth  ? 

Summary. — Eepeating  the  names  of  all  the  parts  of  the 
mouth,  and  their  position ;  the  diversity  in  the  teeth  of  animals, 
as  well  as  in  their  food,  to  suit  their  habits ;  how  we  use  our 
mouths  in  speaking,  eating,  &c. 

12.    The  Chin,  and  Cheeks. 

Where  is  the  chin  ?  What  is  the  shape  of  the  chin  ?  Tell 
me  where  the  cheeks  are  ?  What  js  the  general  color  of  the 
cheeks  ?  When  is  the  color  of  the  cheeks  lost  ?  What  is  the 
substance  of  the  cheeks  ? 

13.    The  Ears,  and  Sense  of  Hearing. 

Where  are  the  ears  placed  ?  How  many  ears  have  we  ? 
Tell  me  the  parts  of  the  ear.f  The  lower  part  is  called  the 

*  This  may  be  made  a  very  interesting  lesson,  and  lead  the  children  to  the 
habit  of  observing  the  details  of  the  process  by  which  they  produce  certain 
sounds,  thus  cultivating  perception  of  the  relation  between  cause  and  effect. 

t  The  teacher  must  here,  as  in  all  such  lessons,  let  the  children  point  to  the 
part  before  its  name  is  told  them. 


306  THE  HITMAN  BODY. 

flap  ;  the  edge  that  curls  over  it  is  called  the  hem.  Whither  does 
the  inner  canal  lead  ?  It  is  a  passage  which  leads  to  the  drum  of 
the  ear,  so  called  because  it  has  a  skin  or  membrane  stretched 
tightly  over  it,  as  the  parchment  is  over  a  drum,  What  do  you 
observe  in  the  ears  of  animals  ?  What  is  their  most  common 
shape  ?  Like  that  of  a  trumpet.  This  is  the  best  shape  for  col- 
lecting sound  and  conducting  it  to  the  passage  of  the  ear.  Did 
you  ever  see  a  poor  hare  or  rabbit,  when  the  dogs  were  chasing 
it  ?  What  was  then  the  direction  of  its  ears  ?  They  were  turned 
backward.  What  was  it  trying  to  hear  ?  Those  animals  that  are 
liable  to  be  pursued  by  others  have  their  ears  turning  backward, 
that  they  may  hear  whatever  may  be  coming  after  them.  What 
kind  of  ear  would  best  suit  those  animals  that  have  to  pursue 
their  prey  ?  And  so  we  find  that  lions,  tigers,  cats,  &c.,  have 
their  ears  pointing  forward,  that  they  may  hear  anything  before 
them.  What  does  all  this  teach  us  of  God  ?  Who  made  all  ani- 
mals ?  And  if  God  has  taken  such  care  for  the  comfort  of  ani- 
mals, how  much  must  He  be  displeased  with  those  who  hurt  and 
tease  dumb  creatures.*  What  is  the  use  of  the  ear  ?  What 
sounds  do  we  hear  easily  ?  what  with  difficulty  ?  What  do  you 
call  people  who  cannot  hear  ?  Why  is  it  a  misfortune  to  be  deaf? 
When  do  we  make  a  good  use  of  the  sense  of  hearing  ? 

Summary. — The  parts  of  the  ear,  and  its  position ;  how  fitted 
for  receiving  sound ;  peculiarities  in  the  ears  of  different  animals ; 
the  uses  of  the  ear. 

14.    The  Hair  and  Head. 

What  covers  the  back  and  the  top  of  the  head  ?  What  is 
there  beneath  the  hair  ?  What  under  the  skin  ?  Have  any  ani- 
mals besides  man  hair  on  their  bodies  ?  Where  is  the  hair  of  other 
animals  ?  What  is  the  use  of  hair  to  animals  ?  What  can  man 
do  to  supply  the  place  of  a  covering  of  hair  ?  Is  the  hair  of  all 
animals  alike  ?  What  difference,  then,  do  you  find  in  the  hair  of 
animals  ?  What  do  you  call  the  hairy  covering  of  sheep  ?  What 

*  A  teacher  of  infants,  while  improving  every  opportunity  of  conveying 
moral  lessons,  should  take  care  to  avoid  introducing  either  these,  or  passages  of 
Scripture,  when  they  do  not  naturally  arise  out  of  the  subject. 


THE   HUMAN    BODY.  307 

kind  of  hair  has  the  pig  ?  what  kind  the  cat  ?  &c.  Name  the 
various  kinds  of  these  coverings.  Hair,  wool,  bristles,  fur.  What 
is  the  shape  of  the  head  ?  Are  the  heads  of  animals  of  the  same 
shape  as  ours  ?  What  difference  do  you  see  ?  Look  at  this  pic- 
ture of  a  dog,  a  pig,  &c.  What  makes  the  heads  of  these  animals 
less  round  than  ours  ?  The  nose  and  mouth  stand  out  more. 

15.   The  Neck. 

Upon  what  are  our  heads  placed  ?  What  is  the  form  of  our 
neck  ?  The  neck  is  like  a  pillar  to  support  the  head ;  but  what  is 
it  in  front  ?  It  is  a  passage.  There  are  two  passages  in  the  neck. 
You  know  very  well  the  use  of  one  of  these.  But,  in  addition  to 
the  throat,  which  is  the  passage  for  conveying  the  food  to  the 
stomach,  there  is  another  called  the  windpipe,  through  which  we 
breathe,  and  which  conveys  air  to  the  lungs. 

16.   The  Bones. 

Now  feel  the  bones  below  the  throat.  That  in  front  is  called 
the  breastbone.  Feel  the  bones  that  stretch  from  the  throat  to  the 
shoulders.  These  are  called  the  collar  bones.  Now  feel  the  bones 
on  each  side  of  the  body  in  front.  These  are  called  the  ribs. 
Where  are  the  ribs  ?  What  is  the  shape  of  the  ribs  ?  They 
curve,  and  form  a  hollow  for  the  lungs  by  which  we  breathe,  and 
for  the  heart,  and  for  the  stomach  into  which  the  food  is  received. 
Feel  the  bone  that  goes  down  the  middle  of  the  back.  It  is  called 
the  spine,  or  backbone.  Where  is  the  backbone  ?  Can  we  bend 
the  backbone  ?  How  is  the  backbone  formed  ?  It  is  formed  of 
a  great  number  of  small  bones,  most  beautifully  joined  together. 
If  our  back  were  formed  of  one  single  bone,  and  were  solid  like 
this  stick,  could  we  bend  it  ?  Can  we  now  bend  the  back  as  we 
may  require  ?  What  advantage  is  there  in  the  backbone  being 
formed  of  many  small  bones  ?  What  is  the  use  of  the  backbone  ? 
What  is  the  direction  of  the  backbone  ?  In  what  position  is  it 
when  we  he  down  ?  In  what  direction  is  the  backbone  of  most 
animals  ? 

Tell  me  now  the  names  of  the  chief  bones  of  the  body  as  you 


308  THE    HUMAN    BODY. 

have  mentioned  them.  To  what  part  of  the  body  do  they  be- 
long ?  What  have  we  besides  a  trunk  ?  How  many  limbs  have 
we  ?  What  do  our  bones  form  altogether  ?  The  skeleton,  or 
bony  framework  which  sustains  all  the  rest  of  our  person. 

17.   The  Blood. 

What  is  the  liquid  that  flows  through  the  body  ?  What  is 
the  color  of  our  blood  ?  What  is  our  condition  when  the  blood  no 
longer  flows  through  our  bodies  ?  In  what  does  the  blood  flow  ? 
Listen  to  me,  and  I  will  tell  you  about  the  blood,  and  the  journey 
it  makes.  It  comes  from  the  heart,  and  travels  to  all  parts  of  the 
body,  nourishing  every  part ;  it  then  returns  to  the  heart,  but  on 
its  way  it  has  become  weakened  by  giving  off  strength  to  every 
part  of  the  frame.  As  it  returns  to  the  heart,  just  before  it  enters 
it,  it  receives  the  nutriment  taken  up  from  the  food,  which  restores 
much  of  the  vigor  it  had  lost.  It  is  then  sent  from  the  right  side 
of  the  heart  into  the  lungs,  where,  by  breathing,  it  is  further  puri- 
fied, and  returning  to  the  left  side  of  the  heart,  bright  and  pure,  it 
is  again  sent  on  its  wonderful  course,  visiting  every  part  of  the 
body,  to  give  nourishment  and  strength.  As  long  as  we  live,  it 
regularly  flows  on,  without  our  thinking  of  it  or  troubling  our- 
selves about  it ;  and  when  it  ceases  to  flow,  we  die.  The  food  we 
take  supplies  nourishment  to  the  blood.  (The  children  should  be 
questioned  upon  all  this  information.)  Now,  which  of  you  can 
tell  me  about  the  blood,  and  its  journey  through  the  body  ?  Do 
you  know  what  liquid  flows  through  plants  in  somewhat  the  same 
manner,  giving  them  life  and  nourishment  ?  It  is  called  the  sap. 

Now  you  have  learned  something  about  your  body ;  tell  me 
who  formed  it.  Yes;  and  David  truly  says,  in  the  139th  Psalm, 
14th  verse,  "I  will  praise  Thee,  for  I  am  fearfully  and  wonderfully 
made."  Repeat  these  words.  What  does  David  declare  about 
God  ?  What  does  he  say  he  himself  will  do  ?  What  does  he 
mean  by  praise  ?  God  made  us,  and  not  we  ourselves,  and  there- 
fore we  ought  to  praise  Him.  But  He  also  takes  care  of  us.  If 
He  should  cease  to  care  for  us,  what  would  become  of  us  ?  Do 
you  wish  Him  to  take  care  of  you  ?  If  you  wished  some  one  to 


THE    HUMAN   BODY.  309 

do  anything  for  you,  what  should  you  on  your  part  do  ?  May  we 
ask  God  for  that  we  want  ?  But  how  do  we  know  that  He  will 
hear  us  if  we  pray  to  Him  ?  Give  me  some  text  from  the  Bible, 
the  Word  of  God,  to  show  that  He  has  promised  to  hear  us  when 
we  pray  to  Him. 

Summary. — The  color,  action,  and  office  of  the  blood ;  the 
changes  it  undergoes  ;  its  importance  ;  how  its  waste  is  supplied  ; 
what  feelings  the  consideration  of  our  bodies  ought  to  produce. . 

SKETCH    FOR    A    LESSON. 

On  the  Difference  between  the  Hand  and  the  Foot. 

1.  Draw  the  attention  of  the  children  to  the  difference  in  the 
position  of  these  two  organs  ;   the  hand  being  placed  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  body  at  the  end  of  the  arm,  and  in  a  line  with  it ;  the 
foot  at  the  lower  part  of  the  body,   at  an  angle  with  the  leg. 
Again,  the  difference  as  to  form  ;  the  hand  thin,  the  palm  capable 
of  being  formed  into  a  hollow  cup ;    and  termiating  in  four  long, 
flexible,  slender  fingers,  ranged  in  a  row,  with  an  opposing  thumb 
which  can  be  brought  to  meet  any  one  of  them,  so  as  to  pick  up 
or  grasp  objects.    The  sense  of  touch,  also,  as  being  so  exquisitely 
delicate  in  the  fingers,  enabling  women  to  do  the  finest  needle- 
work, and  men  to  carry  on  the  most  delicate  operations.     The 
foot  thick  and  stiff ;  the  instep  arched  for  strength ;  the  sole  of  the 
foot  broad  and  flat ;  the  toes  short  and  thick,  the  whole  five  being 
arranged  in  one  plane. 

2.  The  use  of  the  hand,  to  lay  hold  of  things ;   that  of  the 
foot,  to  support  the  body  when  in  an  upright  position,  or  when 
moving  or  standing. 

3.  How  both  these  organs  are  fitted  by  their  position  and  form 
for  their  different  offices.     The  hand,  by  its  thinness  and  flexibility, 
being  capable  of  being  formed  into  a  hollow ;    its  long,   delicate 
fingers  opposed  to  the  thumb,  forming  a  complete  organ  for  grasp- 
ing and  touching ;    the   foot,   by  its   thinness,   flatness,    and   the 
breadth  of  the  sole,  by  the  muscular  power  of  the  instep,  and  by 
its  position,  fitted  for  its  office  of  supporting  the  body  in  an  erect 
posture. 


COUKSE  OF  LESSONS   ON  ANIMALS. 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS. 

THE  natural  history  of  the  animal  creation  furnishes  abundant 
materials  for  instruction.  First,  that  of  a  religious  character  ;  for 
the  wisdom  and  goodness  of  the  Creator  are  manifestly  proclaimed 
in  the  wonderful  construction  and  beautiful  adaptation  of  animals 
to  circumstances,  evidencing  design  in  a  manner  which  no  one  can 
gainsay.  Secondly,  that  of  a  moral  character  ;  for,  by  awakening 
interest  in  animals,  kind  and  humane  feelings  are  promoted,  which 
those  who  have  witnessed  the  pleasure  even  very  young  children 
take  in  tormenting  creatures  over  which  they  have  any  power  will 
acknowledge  to  be  an  object  of  no  small  importance.  Thirdly, 
that  of  an  intellectual  character ;  for  the  faculties  of  observation, 
of  comparison,  and  of  conception,  are  brought  into  exercise,  whilst 
reason  takes  its  part  in  tracing  cause  and  effect,  and  drawing  in- 
ferences and  conclusions  from  facts. 

In  the  First  Step,  the  perceptive  faculty  is  exercised  on  the 
general  appearance  and  external  parts  of  animals.  The  teacher 
must  not  seek  either  to  promote  precocious  development,  or  to 
store  the  memory  with  information,  but  simply  to  direct  aright  the 
activity  that  exists  ;  to  form,  and  not  to  fill  the  mind. 

In  the  Second  Step,  not  only  the  perceptive,  but  also  the  con- 
ceptive  faculty  is  exercised.  The  teacher  directs  attention  to  the 
actions  of  animals  and  their  mode  of  life,  as  well  as  to  their  forms, 
parts,  &c.  Subjects  of  lessons  are  no  longer  limited  to  native  and 
domestic  animals,  but  include  such  as  are  foreign ;  at  least  the 
more  prominent  of  these. 


LESSONS    ON   ANIMALS. FIRST   STEP.  311 

In  the  Third  Step,  the  reasoning  faculty  -is  exercised.  The 
teacher  leads  her  class,  already  somewhat  acquainted  with  the 
structure  and  habits  of  animals,  to  see  the  wonderful  adaptation 
of  one  to  the  other.  Sometimes  this  is  best  shown  by  comparison 
of  individual  animals. 

In  the  Fourth  Step,  the  faculty  of  generalization  is  exercised. 
The  work  of  the  last  Step,  which  is  consideration  of  adaptation, 
is  extended  to  classes  of  animals.  More  general  comparisons  are 
made. 

Moral  lessons  should  constantly  be  drawn  from  these  subjects, 
not  with  cold,  dry  formalism,  but  in  such  a  manner  as  to  interest 
and  to  improve.  In  the  lower  steps,  the  object  of  the  teacher 
will  be  chiefly  to  excite  feelings  of  humanity  and  sympathy  for 
the  lower  animals.  In  the  higher  steps,  the  thoughtful  teacher 
cannot  help  referring  to  the  wisdom  and  goodness  of  the  great 
Creator  and  Adapter. 

All  that  can  be  done  to  help  teachers  in  carrying  out  this  sub- 
ject, is  to  furnish  them  with  principles,  give  a  few  patterns  of 
model  sketches  and  exercises,  and  to  suggest  hints.  But  if  the 
inind  of  the  teacher  be  barren  and  uninventive,  the  instruction 
will  be  dull  and  wearisome* 


FIRST   STEP. 

I. — General  conversation  about  an  animal.     Observation  of  its 
most  prominent  parts,  as  the  children  advance. 
II.— More  accurate  observation  ;  referring  to, 

1.  Parts,  names,  and  number  and  uses  of  these. 

2.  Distinction  of  parts,  as  principal  and  secondary. 

3.  Position  of  parts. 

4.  Characteristic  parts,  or  those  which  especially  distinguish 
the  animal. 

Any  one  or  two  of  these  points  may  be  taken  up  in  a  lesson, 
as  the  subject  may  be  best  adapted  to  work  them  out.  But  as  a 
general  rule,  the  teacher  will  commence  the  Step  by  working  out 
Point  1,  and  conclude  it  by  working  out  Point  2. 


312  LESSONS   ON   ANIMALS. — FIKST   STEP. 

In  preparing  students  to  teach  this  subject,  the  teacher  of 
Method  may  begin  by  directing  their  attention  to  the  pattern  les- 
son on  the  "  Hen  and  Chickens." 

Let  them  examine  the  sketch,  note  what  ideas  are  taken  up, 
in  what  order,  and  form  a  corresponding  lesson  on  the  "  Cat  and 
Kittens." 

1.  Hen  and  Chickens,     (Conversational  Lesson.) 

1.  Present  a  picture.     Let  the  children  examine  it,  and  deter- 
mine what  the  animals  are  ;   what  doing ;   what  the  hen  is  to  the 
chickens ;   the  chickens  to  the  hen ;   what  the  hen  does  for  the 
chickens  (scratches  up  food  for  them  all  day,  watches  over  them, 
defends  them  from  any  dog  or  hawk  that  threatens  them).     This 
gives  her  trouble,  and  exposes  her  to  danger.     "Why  she  does  it  ? 
She  loves  her  chickens.     Children  to  say  what  their  mothers  do 
for  them,  and  why  ?      Refer  to  the  goodness  of  God,  which  in- 
spires mothers  with  so  much  affection. 

2.  Children  compare  the  hen  and  chickens  as  to  their  ways, 
&c.     The  hen  is  active,  industrious,  intent  on  supplying  the  wants 
of  the  chickens.     The  chickens  are  Tyeak,  helpless,  and  can  do 
nothing  for  themselves.     How  they  act  on  the  approach  of  dan- 
ger.   How  the  hen  behaves  under  the  same  circumstances.     How 
loving  she  is ;   how  brave  ;   how  unselfish.     How  we  should  feel 
and  behave  toward  the  hen. 

2.   The  Horse.     (For  Parts,  their  Names,  and  Number.) 


1.  A  horse  has  legs, 
body,  head,  eyes,  ears, 
mane,  tail,  and  hoofs. 

2.  A   horse    has    a 
long  round  body,  long 
thin  legs,  a  handsome 
flowing    tail,    flowing 
mane,      and      upright 
pointed  ears. 


1.  Children  name  the  parts  when  point- 
ed   to,   and  point  to  them  when  named. 
(S.  R.) 

2.  Children  led  to  talk  about  the  parts  ; 
their  number  and   kind.      Teacher  gives 
terms  required  to  express  ideas ;  as,  hand- 
some ;  flowing,  by  comparing  the  tail  and 
mane  of  the  horse  with  the  tail  and  mane 
of  the    lion.       Pointed,    brought    out    by 
comparing  the  two  ends  of  a  cut  pencil. 


LESSONS   ON   ANIMALS. — FIKST   STEP.  313 


3.  The  horse  has 
one  head,  one  body, 
one  tail,  two  eyes,  two 
ears,  four  legs,  and  four 
feet. 


4.  "We  should  never 
treat  the  horse  unkind- 
ly, but  always  be  good 
and  gentle  to  it. 


"Which  end  most  resembles  the  ears  of  a 
horse  ?  Upright,  by  holding  the  pencil  in 
different  directions. 

3.  Children  referred  to  the  parts  they 
have  before  noticed.    Teacher  bids  them  to 
name  some  part  of  which  the  horse  has 
but  one  ;   some  part  of  which  it  has  two  ; 
whether  they  can  find  any  part  of  which  it 
has  exactly  three  ?      If  not,  let  them  find 
parts  of  which  it  has  four. 

4.  Children  say  who  made  the  horse. 
How  He  would  like  to  have  us  treat  it  ? 
To  name   any  ways   in  which   they  can 
show  it  kindness. 

Summary. — Teacher  asks  each  child  individually  to  name  a 
part  of  the  horse.  Goes  around  the  class  a  second  time,  asking 
each  the  number  of  part  he  names ;  i.  e.,  the  child  who  says, 
"  The  horse  has  an  eye,"  should  say  how  many  eyes.  Third  time 
each  child  is  required  to  describe  any  part  named  by  the  teacher. 

Students  in  training  to  construct  a  sketch  on  "  The  Mouse," 
as  "  The  Horse." 

3.   The  'Sparrow.     (Parts.) 

I. — Principal  and  secondary  parts.     II. — Position  of  parts. 

I. — 1.  Principal  Parts. — These  are,  head,  lody,  wings,  and 
legs.  (S.  R.)  Call  on  a  child  to  touch  a  large  part  of  the  bird. 
"When  body  and  wings  have  been  found,  cover  them  up,  that  the 
remaining  parts  may  be  distinguished. 

2.  Secondary  Parts. — (a)  Of  the  head — eyes  and  beak.  \b) 
Of  the  body — -feathers,  lack,  Ireast,  and  tail,  (c)  Of  the  legs — 
feet  and  claws.  (S.  R.)  A  child  to  find  a  part  of  the  tead ;  as, 
the  eye.  How  many  eyes  ?  "What  the  bird  does  with  them  ? 
The  leak.  How  many"  parts  ?  Its  use  ?  What  children  have, 
instead  of  a  beak  ?  What,  instead  of  the  feathers  •?  Why  the 
bird  wants  feathers  ?  &c. 

II. — Position. — 1.  Principal.     The  head  is  at  one  end  of  the 
lody  ;  the  tail  at  the  other  end.     The  wings  are  on  either  side,  and 
the  legs  underneath.     (S.  R.) 
14 


314:  LESSONS   ON   ANIMALS. FIRST    STEP. 

2.  Secondary.  The  eyes  are  on  either  side  of  the  head.  The 
beak  is  in  front  of  the  head,  and  below  the  eyes.  The  back  is 
the  upper  part  of  the  body,  the  breast  the  under  part.  The  feet  are 
below  the  legs.  The  toes  are  at  the  end  of  each  foot — three  be- 
fore, and  one  behind.  The  feathers  are  all  over  the  bird,  except 
the  legs,  beak,  and  eyes.  (S.  E.)  Children  to  notice  where  the 
head  is.  Teacher  give  the  proper  expression,  if  needed.  Ques- 
tion thus  :  "What  is  at  one  end  of  the  body  ?  "What  at  the  other  ? 
Then  reverse  the  questions  ;  as,  Where  is  the  head  ?  Where  are 
the  legs  ?  the  feathers  ?  Children  distinguish  the  unfeathered 
parts. 

Students  construct  sketch  on  "  The  House-fly,"  as  "  The  Spar- 
row." 

The  teacher,  having  led  the  class  in  training  to  decide  on  the 
characteristic  parts  which  are  written  on  the  board,  requires  them 
to  supply  the  method. 

4.    The  Duck.     (For  Characteristic  Parts.) 

MATTER. — 1.  The  duck  has  feathers  of  many  colors — green, 
blue,  brown,  white,  and  black. 

2.  The  duck  has  thick,  glossy  plumage. 

3.  The  duck  has  a  flat,  boat-shaped  body. 

4.  The  duck  has  strong  yellow  legs,  placed  far  back. 

5.  The  duck  has  broad,  webbed,  yellow  feet. 

6.  The  duck  has  a  broad,  flat-toothed,  yellow  bill,  rounded  at 
the  end. 

METHOD. — 1.  Let  children  select  colored  cards  to  match  the 
feathers  of  the  duck,  and  name  the  colors. 

2.  Unless  there  is  a  stuffed  specimen,  and  not  merely  a  pic- 
ture, omit  this.    With  a  specimen,  bring  out  thick,  by  observation, 
and  glossy,  by  comparison  with  the  feathers  of  an  owl. 

3.  Present  a  card-board  cylinder.     Children  bend  it  so  as  to 
represent  the  general  shape  of  the  body.     Give  term  flat.     Draw 
an  oblong  to  represent  shape,  and  ask  what  object  they  see  on  the 
water  nearly  of  the  same  shape  ? 


LESSONS   ON   ANIMALS. FIRST   STEP. 


315 


4.  Measure  the  diagram  from  end  to  end.     Mark  it  in  the 
middle. 


Children  to  mark  where  the  legs  are  placed. 


5.  Compare  with  feet  of  a  hen.     Give  the  term  welled. 

6.  Compare  with  the  beak  of  a  hen.     Give  the  term  toothed. 
Summary. — Teacher  names  the  parts.      Each  child  in  turn 

gives  a  term  which  describes  the  part  named. 

Students  may  construct  a  sketch  on   "  The  Hen,"  as  "  The 
Duck." 


Suljects  for  Lessons  at  this  Step. 


A  Dog. 
A  Cat. 
A  Cow. 
A  Sheep. 
A  Horse. 
A  Goat. 
A  Hen. 


A  Cat  and  Kittens. 

A  Cow  and  Calf. 

A  Sheep  and  Lambs. 

A  Donkey  in  Draught. 

A  Pig. 

A  Duck. 

A  Hen  and  Chickens. 


316  LESSONS   ON   ANIMALS. — SECOND   STEP. 

A  Cock.  A  Mare  and  Foal 

A  Rabbit.  A  Goose. 

A  Mouse.  A  Eat. 

A  Newfoundland  Dog.  A  Guinea  Pig. 

SECOND    STEP. 

I. — Characteristic  Parts  continued. 
II. — Mode  of  Life. 

1.  Habitation. 

2.  Food. 

3.  Actions ;    especially  characteristic   actions,    including 

Sounds. 

III. — Disposition ;  involving  special  traits  of  character  or  in- 
telligence. Lessons  of  this  kind  are  best  worked  out  by  anec- 
dotes. Moral  lessons  should  be  derived  from  them. 

IV. — Uses  of  the  animal,  living  or  dead ;  our  duties  with 
respect  to  it.  The  uses  to  be  considered  are  those  whicn  have 
direct  reference  to  man.  The  uses  of  animals  in  the  economy  of 
Nature  is  a  subject  in  advance  of  the  Step.  "When  the  lesson  is 
on  a  domestic  animal,  it  should  not  close  without  asking  the  chil- 
dren what  they  can  do  for  the  comfort  and  pleasure  of  the  crea- 
ture. 

V. — Comparative  size. 

As  was  the  case  in  the  First  Step,  any  of  these  points  may  e 
taken  as  the  subject  of  a  lesson.  Thus  :  In  the  first  exercises,  we 
have  Characteristic  Parts  and  Actions,  with  Uses ;  in  the  second, 
Sounds ;  in  the  third,  Characteristic  Parts  and  Traits ;  in  the 
fourth,  Form,  and  Use  as  depending  on  the  food  of  the  animal ; 
in  the  fifth,  Mode  of  Life.  The  same,  or  other  animals,  would  be 
chosen  to  bring  out  the  remaining  points. 

The  teacher  of  method,  in  commencing  the  Step,  may  begin 
with  a  pattern  sketch  on 

1.   The  Cow. 
I.  Parts. — Bring  a  picture  of  a  cow  before  the  children,  who, 


LESSONS   ON   ANIMALS. — SECOND   STEP.  31? 

after  describing  its  general  appearance,  according  to  the  picture, 
point  out  what  distinguishes  the  cow  from  other  animals:  A 
square  bulky  body,  thin  legs,  broad  head,  curved  horns,  straight 
back,  rounded  sides,  dewlap,  covering  of  short  hair,  long  slender 
tail  with  a  tuft  at  the  end,  and  cloven  hoofs.  (W.  B.) 

II.  Actions. — Let  the  children  mention  anything  a  cow  can 
do  ;  then  leave  them  to  make  out  a  list  of  actions  proper  to  a  cow. 
Gathering   the    grass  together  with  the   tongue  when   feeding; 
chewing  the  cud,  lying  down  meanwhile  ;  tossing  with  the  horns  ; 
kicking  ;  lashing  its  sides  with  the  tail ;  whisking  off  flies  wth  its 
tail ;  lowing  ;  bending  the  fore  legs  first  in  lying  down  ;  standing 
in  the  water.     Children  to  say  under  what  circumstances  each  of 
these  actions  is  performed. 

III.  Uses. — Children  find  out  all  the  uses  of  the  cow.     She 
gives  milk ;   we  eat  her  flesh ;    in  some  countries  used  for  the 
plough  and  for  the  draught ;   her  hair  is  used  in  making  mortar  ; 
her  hoofs  make  glue  ;   her  horns  to  make  cups  and  knife  handles  ; 
her  fat  to  make  tallow.     Children  say  in  what  ways  the  cow  is 
useful  while  living,  and  when  dead.    "Who  gave  us  this  useful  crea- 
ture ?     Plow  we  ought  to  treat  His  gift  ?     What  the  cow  likes  ? 
"What  she  ought  to  have  ?  &c. 

Students  may  construct  a  sketch  on  "  The  Dog,"  as  "  The 
Cow." 

Exercises  on  this  pattern  should  be  continued  until  the  stu- 
dents can  readily  select  and  arrange  the  points  each  involves. 
"The  Pig,"  "The  Elephant,"  "The  Cat,"  "The  Lion,"  "The 
Robin,"  and  "The  Ostrich,"  are  good  subjects. 

2.  The  following  general' directions,  involving  the  heads  of  an 
exercise  on  the  Sounds  of  Animals,  are  given,  to  which  the  stu- 
dents may  supply  the  Matter  and  the  Method : 

HEADS. — I.  Enumerate  sounds  made  by  different  kinds  of 
Birds.  Draw  a  general  conclusion  from  a  consideration  of  these. 

II. — Enumerate  sounds  made  by  different  kinds  of  Beasts. 
Draw  general  conclusion. 


318  LESSONS   ON   ANIMALS. — SECOND   STEP. 

III. — Enumerate  sounds  made   by  Keptiles.      Confine   your 
attention  to  the  sounds  made  by  vertebrated  animals. 
Students  construct  sketch  on  "  Sounds  of  Insects." 

3.   The  Parrot.     (  Characteristic  Parts.     Characteristic  Traits.) 

1.  Children  determine  how  they  know  a  parrot.    By  its  green 
or  gray  plumage,  with  a  mixture  of  red ;  its  curved  and  curious 
beak,  the  upper  part  loose ;  its  strong  legs ;  the  arrangement  of 
its  toes — two  before,  and  two  behind  ;  also  by  its  power  of  learn- 
ing to  talk. 

2.  Children  name  the  birds  that  can  be  taught  to  speak : 
Raven,  magpie,  daw,  jay,  starling.     (W.  B.)     How  birds  learn 
to  speak.     Whether  any  one  in  the  list  speaks  as  well  as  the  par- 
rot ?     How  much  of  what  it  says  does  the  parrot  understand  ? 
How  children  can  talk,  and  learn  their  lessons,  just  like  parrots  ? 
"Whether  it  is  right  to  do  so  ? 

Lead  children  to  see  that,  as  God  has  given  us  a  power  of 
reflection,  not  possessed  by  birds,  we  ought  not  to  speak  without 
thinking. 

Students  construct  a  sketch  on  "  The  Pheasant,"  as  "  The 
Parrot." 

4.  Lesson  on  the  Sheep.     (For  Uses.) 

1.  Form  of  the  animal's  body.     Large  trunk  compared  with 
slender  neck,  and  small  head.     Thick  covering  noticed. 

2.  Uses  of  the  animal  to  man  for  food  and  clothing. 

3.  Food  of  the  animal — grass,  that  grows  plentifully  every- 
where, even  on  the  tops  of  high  hills,  where  corn  will  not  grow. 

4.  The  blessing  this  animal  is  to  man.     The  goodness  of  God 
in  giving  it  to  him. 

5.  What  the  sheep  likes.     What  we  can  do  for  it. 
Students  may  construct  a  sketch  on   "  The  Ass,"  as   <:The 

Sheep." 

After  a  sufficient  number  of  individual  lessons,  a  more  general 
lesson  may  be  given.  In  the  one  that  follows,  the  Matter  is  given, 
that  the  students  may  write  out  the  Method : 


LESSONS    ON    ANIMALS. — SECOND   STLl*.  319 

5.  Animals.     (Mode  of  Life.) 

1.  Where  living  ? 

2.  How  moving  ? 

MATTER. — 1.  God  made  animals  and  plants.  He  made  the 
animals  to  move  about,  and  the  plants  to  keep  in  one  place. 

2.  God  made  some  animals  to  live  and  move  in  the  air,  some 
on  the  earth,  and  some  in  the  water. 

3.  To  those  animals  that  live  in  the  air,  God  gave  wings,  and 
they  fly ;  to  those  that  live  in  the  water,  He  gave  fins,  and  they 
swim ;  to  those  that  live  on  the   earth,  He  gave  feet,  and  they 
walk. 

Comparative  Sizes  of  Animals. 

As  the  Natural  History  prints  are  not  constructed  at  all  with 
reference  to  their  comparative  sizes,  to  guard  against  any  wrong 
impression  that  may  be  formed  by  the  children,  it  is  well  to  call 
their  attention  to  this  point. 

For  this  purpose,  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  chart  to  show  this, 
such  as  those  sold  by  the  Home  and  Colonial  Institution. 

The  teachers  of  the  children  may  exercise  them  in  finding : 

1.  Ten  of  the  largest  animals. 

2.  Ten  of  the  smallest  animals. 

3.  Six  not  so  large  as  the  first  ten,  nor  so  small  as  the  second 
ten. 

4.  Ten  animals  of  various  sizes,  to  be  arranged  in  order,  be- 
ginning with  the  largest. 

5.  The  same,  beginning  with  the  smallest. 

6.  Animals  nearly  the  size  of  a  horse ;  as,  cow,  bear,  &c. 

7.  "  "  a  sheep ;  as,  goat,  &c. 

8.  "  "  a  cat ;  as,  rabbit. 

9.  "  a  rat ;  as,  guinea  pig. 

10.  "  "  an  elephant ;  as,  the  rhinoceros. 

It  were  better,  perhaps,  that  the  lessons  on  size  should  not 
'come  in  series.  They  will  make  an  agreeable  variety  if  inter- 
spersed with  other  lessons  on  animals.  In  each  lesson,  as  the  ani- 
mals are  chosen,  their  names  should  be  placed  on  the  board. 


320 


LESSONS    ON    ANIMALS, — THIRD    STEP. 


"When  the  children  can  readily  give  examples  from  the  chart,  they 
may  be  required  to  do  so  from  memory. 

Subjects  for  Further  Lessons. 

All  native  animals  that  are  familiar,  and  a  few  of  the  more 
prominent  foreign  animals,  as  lion,  elephant,  &c.,  may  be  taken. 
Lessons  from  Scripture  Natural  History  may  be  included. 


EXAMPLES. 

Raven, 

Serpent, 

Camel, 

Fish, 

Dove, 

Lion, 

Ass, 

Sheep, 

Bee, 

Eagle. 


See  Religious  Instruction, 
Part  2. 


THIRD    STEP. 

In  this  Step  the  instruction  is  more  systematic  than  in  the 
former  ones.  The  teacher  selects  her  subjects  from  Class  Mam- 
malia, with  a  view  to  classification  in  the  succeeding  Step.  Al- 
though the  attention  of  the  children  is  not  directed  to  the  animals 
as  forming  different  groups,  they  are  led  to  trace  the  gradual 
change  that  takes  place  in  their  organization ;  fitting  them  for 
different  habits,  propensities,  and  localities.  The  faculty  of  com- 
parison, as  well  as  that  of  simple  observation,  is  exercised. 

In  considering  structure  and  habits  with  special  reference  to 
the  adaptation  of  the  first  to  the  last,  it  is  often  well  to  begin  with 
the  mode  of  life,  leaving  the  children  to  judge  as  to  the  kind  of 
structure  this  renders  necessary. 


LESSONS    ON    ANIMALS. — THIED    STEP.  321 

'  1.  Lesson  on  the  Bat.      (Point — To  Show  the  Structure  of  the 

Wings.) 

1.  Bid  a  child  touch  different  parts  of  his  own  body,  to  lead 
the  rest  to  distinguish  the  head,  trunk,  and  limbs.     Children  state 
the  number  of  limbs  in  a  man.     How  terminating  ?     Other  ani- 
mals that  have  four  limbs.     How  terminating  ?     Generally  in  feet 
only.     Give  the  term  quadrupeds.    "Whether  man  is  a  quadruped  ? 
"Why  not  ?     By  comparison  with  different  animals,  show  that  only 
man  has  two  hands  and  two  feet. 

2.  Refer  to  a  creature  having  four  limbs,  the  hinder  terminat- 
ing with  feet,  the  fore  formed  into  wings.     Children  will  think  of 
a  bird.     May  be  told  that  there  is  such  a  creature  amongst  beasts. 
Produce  a  specimen.     Direct  attention  to  the  wing,  and  explain 
that  an  equal  number  of   bones  form  the  arm  of  man  and  the 
wing  of  a  bat.     Children  to  find  out  the  bones  in  their  own  arms. 
(W.  B.) 

1.  From  the  shoulder  to  the  elbow. 

2.  From  the  elbow  to  the  wrist. 

3.  The  hand  bones. 

4.  The  thumb  bones. 

5.  The  finger  bones. 

Draw  a  diagram  of  the  arm,  numbering  the  parts ;  then  a  dia- 
gram of  the  bat's  wing,  numbering  corresponding  parts,  which 
children  observe  and  compare. 

1.  Longest  bone  in  man  ;   shortest  in  the  bat. 

2.  Shorter  in  man  ;  very  long  in  the  bat. 

3.  Scarcely  appear  in  the  bat. 

4.  In  the  bat  terminating  as  a  nail,  serving  as  a  hook. 

5.  In  the  bat  thin,  and  extremely  elongated,  with  extended 
skin  between.     (W.  B.,  in  opposite  columns.) 

Lead  children  to  observe,  that  they  find  no  new  part  in  the 
wing,  but  an  accommodation  of  common  parts  to  special  circum- 
stances. Children  to  say  why  the  bat  has  wings  at  all — (it  lives 
in  the  air).  "What  its  food  is.  "What  it  can  find  in  the  air. 
Children  may  examine  the  beak,  and  observe  how  it  is  adapted 
14* 


322 


LESSONS    ON    ANIMALS. THIRD    STEP. 


for  catching  insects.  Tell  them  that  at  one  time  of  the  year  the 
bat  seeks  the  hollow  of  a  tree,  or  goes  into  the  steeple  of  a  church, 
because  torpid ;  remains  motionless ;  folds  its  wings  around  it,  and 
hangs  to  some  projection  by  its  hook.  Children  to  say  when  this 
would  happen  ?  And  why  then  ?  Who  gave  the  bat  its  wings  ? 
Whether  any  one  can  suggest  any  improvement  ?  Let  children 
notice  the  size  of  the  wing,  extending  down  the  side  to  the  feet. 
Why  a  smaller  one  would  not  do  ?  Skin— why  thin  ?  Why 
tough  ?  Color — corresponding  with  the  body  ;  appears  black  at 
dusk.  Why  ?  Let  us  praise  His  wisdom,  who  gave  the  bat  its 
wings,  and  of  whom  we  can  say,  "  He  hath  done  all  things  well." 


1.  — I.    We      will 
speak  of  a  little  ani- 
mal called  a  hedgehog. 
It  lives  in  this  country, 
under  hedges  or  in  gar- 
dens ;  sleeps  during  the 
day  ;  takes  its  food  at 
night,  and  becomes  tor- 
pid in  the  winter. 

2.  It    eats    insects, 
worms,    and    the    soft 
parts  of  the  roots  of 
trees. 

3.  It  burrows  under 
ground. 

II. — 1.  The  snout  is 
hard  and  bony  ;  claws 
very  sharp  ;  legs  very 
short. 


2.   The  Hedgehog. 


I. — 1.    Information   given, 
children  fail  to  supply  it. 


where   the 


2.  From  the  places  which  it  frequents, 
children  to  infer  what  its  food  would  be. 


3.  Ghildren  to  say  what  parts  it  must 
have  in  order  to  burrow  —  (snout  and 
claws). 

II. — 1.  Facts  discovered  by  observation 
of  the  specimen  now  produced.  Chil- 
dren judge  whether  a  creature  employed 
in  scraping  away  earth  with  its  claws  could 
act  better  with  long  or  with  short  legs. 
In  order  to  this,  let  the  children  imitate 
the  action  of  scraping,  first  with  the  arms 
stretched  out,  and  then  with  the  elbows 
bent.  They  will  decide  in  which  way  they 
could  work  the  longer. 


LESSONS   ON   ANIMALS. THIRD   STEP. 


323 


2.  Its  back  is  cov- 
ered with  spines. 

3.  When  in  danger, 
it  presents  the  spines, 
and   conceals  the  un- 
protected parts. 

4.  The  tail  is  very 
short. 

III. — Summary. 


2.  Children  to  say  whether  the  legs  are 
suited  for  running.     How  the  hedgehog  is 
to  be  defended  from  its  enemies. 

3.  Children   discover   why   the   spines 
need  not  coveV  the  whole  body. 


4.  Children  observe  the  fact,  and,  from 
what  they  know,  find  out  the  advantage. 

III. — Children  give  from  memory,  first, 
the  habits  ;  secondly,  parts  ;  thirdly,  state 
how  adapted. 


3.    Comparison  of  Cat  with  Dog. 

I.  Resemblance. — Both  are  quadrupeds ;  have  paws  and  claws ; 
three  kinds  of  teeth  ;  eat  flesh. 

II.  Differences. 

Structure. 

DOG.  CAT. 


1.  The  dog's  head  is  pointed. 

2.  The  dog's  teeth  are  large, 
flat,  and  rounded. 

3.  The  dog's  claws  not  retrac- 
tile. 

4.  The  dog's  hairy  covering. 

5.  The   dog's   skin  with  few 
pores. 

6.  The  dog's  legs  usually  long. 


1.  The  cat's  head  is  round. 

2.  The  cat's  teeth  are  small, 
sharp,  arid  pointed. 

3.  The  cat's  claws  retractile. 

4.  The  cat's  furry  covering. 

5.  The  cat's  skin  porous. 


6.  The  cat's  legs  short. 


Ilalits. 


1.  The  dog  prefers  meat  in  a 
putrid  state. 

2.  The  dog  eats  any  flesh  he 
finds. 

3.  The    dog    runs    down    its 
prey. 

4.  The  dog  secures  it  by  teeth. 

5.  The  dog  runs. 

6.  The  dog  has  good  scent. 

7.  The  dog  howls,  and,  when 
domesticated,  barks. 


1.  The  cat  likes  fresh  meat. 

2.  The  cat,  in  a  state  of  nature, 
eats  only  what  it  kills  for  itself. 

3.  The  cat   watches  for  and 
springs  on  its  prey. 

4.  The  cat  secures  it  by  claws. 

5.  The  cat  leaps  and  climbs. 

6.  The  cat  has  good  sight, 

7.  The  cat  mews. 


324: 


LESSONS   ON   ANIMALS. THIKD    STEP. 


8.  The  dog  bites  when  angry. 

9.  The  dog  wags  the  tail  when 
pleased. 

10.  The  dog  licks  the  hand  to 
show  affection. 


8.  The    cat    scratches    when 
angry. 

9.  The  cat  purrs  when  pleased. 

10.  The   cat   rubs    the   head 
against  you. 


Children  might  also  distinguish  between  habits  natural  to  the 
animal,  and  habits  acquired  by  domestication,  rearranging  the  mat- 
ter accordingly. 

The  three  previous  sketches  on  "  The  Bat,"  "The  Hedgehog," 
and  the  "  Comparison  of  Cat  with  Dog,"  are.  given  as  examples 
of  the  manner  in  which  the  succeeding  lessons  may  be  treated  in 
practice. 

MAMMALS. 

The  Monkey. 

First  lead  the  children  to  describe  the  monkey,  helping  them 
by  showing  stuffed  specimens  and  pictures,  and  by  bringing  to 
their  recollection  the  living  animals  they  may  have  seen. 

Points  to  which  their  attention  should  be  directed  :  The  head 
approaching  in  form  nearer  to  that  of  man  than  the  head  of  any 
other  animal,  in  consequence  of  the  mouth  projecting  but  little. 
The  slender,  slight  figure,  adapted  to  agile  motion  ;  the  long  flex- 
ible limbs,  terminated  by  hands  fitted  for  grasping — that  is,  hav- 
ing four  fingers,  with  a  thumb  which  can  be  brought  opposite  to 
each  of  them.  They  are  called  four-handed  animals.* 

Then  their  habits.  They  live  in  the  woods  and  forests  of 
warm  countries ;  they  feed  on  nuts  and  fruits ;  they  spring  from 
bough  to  bough,  and  from  tree  to  tree,  with  surprising  agility. 

Next  lead  the  children  to  consider  how  their  form  and  organ- 
ization fit  them  for  this  arboreal  life.  That  they  derive  the  power 
of  springing  and  rapid  motion  from  their  slender,  flexible  limbs ; 
and  their  facility  in  grasping  from  the  form  of  their  limbs  and 
teeth,  aided  often  by  the  tail. 

Consider  next  their  disposition :    cunning,  intelligent,  ridicu- 
lously imitative,  lively,  restless,  chattering,  and  quarrelsome.. 
*  Quadrumana. 


LESSONS   ON    ANIMALS. THIKD    STEP.  325 

In  conclusion,  lead  the  children  to  infer  from  the  facts  brought 
out  in  the  lesson,  viz.,  that  the  monkey  dwells  among  trees ;  is 
peculiarly  fitted  for  springing  and  grasping,  and  for  feeding  on 
hard  vegetable  food,  that  the  Being  who  made  it,  and  fixed  its 
habitation,  is  as  benevolent  and  kind  as  lie  is  powerful  and  wise ; 
that  He  is  our  God,  and  we  are  His  creatures, 

The  Orang-outang. 

First,  its  general  appearance  and  form.  It  approaches  nearer 
to  a  human  being,  in  form  and  attitude,  than  any  other  animal, 
and  can  maintain  an  erect  posture,  though,  owing  to  the  different 
position  of  its  hinder  limbs,  and  the  fact  of  its  extremities  being 
better  fitted  for  prehension  than  support,  it  walks  with  difficulty.* 
The  fore  limbs  are  of  a  great  length,  the  hinder  limbs  shorter,  all 
slender  and  flexible,  and,  from  the  peculiar  construction  of  the 
joints,  possessing  great  freedom  of  motion.  The  skin,  except 
that  of  the  face  and  palms  of  the  hands,  is  covered  with  long, 
coarse  hair.  They  are  less  noisy  and  tricky  than  monkeys,  but 
equally  intelligent  and  sagacious. 

The  monkeys  of  America  might  form  the  subject  of  a  separate 
lesson.  They  are  remarkable,  as  possessing  in  their  cheek-pouches 
a  most  singular  provision  for  enabling  them  to  keep  a  store  of 
food ;  and  in  their  long,  prehensive  tails,  by  which  they  can  main- 
tain the  firmest  grasp.  With  these  they  also  link  themselves  to- 
gether in  a  chain,  and  when  they  wish  to  pass  to  trees  at  a  dis- 
tance, they  swing  this  chain  with  a  sudden  jerk,  so  that  the  last 
of  them  catches  hold  of  the  tree  they  wish  to  reach.  Their  throats 
also  are  curiously  formed,  enabling  them  to  utter  a  most  terrific 
yell.  They  often  assemble  together  in  great  numbers,  and  join  in 
a  tremendous  howling. 

In  conclusion,  the  children  should  give  a  description  of  the 
monkey ;  pointing  out  in  what  it  resembles  man,  and  in  what 
points  he  is  altogether  its  superior. 

*-  In  such  short  sketches  as  these  the  subject  only  of  the  lesson  can  be  sug- 
gested. The  teacher  must  get  up  the  information  required,  and  collecMllustra- 
tive  anecdotes  from  books,  such  as  "  The  Class  Mammalia,"  published  by  the 
London  Tract  Society,  and  "the  Menageries"  of  the  Library  of  Entertaining 
Knowledge ;  also  Smcllic's  "  Philosophy  of  Natural  History." 


320  LESSONS    ON    ANIMALS. THIKD    STEP. 

The  Mole. 

After  a  few  questions  to  arouse  the  children's  recollection  of 
the  characteristics  of  the  animals  already  examined,  they  may  be 
told,  if  they  do  not  know  the  fact,  that  the  abode  of  the  mole  is 
under  ground.  What,  {hen,  should  we  expect  as  to  its  conforma- 
tion ?  That  it  is  fitted  to  burrow  in  the  earth,  and  to  live  under 
ground.  "What  organ  fits  the  monkey  for  its  life  amid  trees  ? 
What  limb  of  the  bat  did  we  find  accommodated  to  flying  ? 
What  enables  the  hedgehog  to  burrow  in  the  earth  ?  In  what 
very  different  places  have  we  found  animals  living  ?  In  trees,  in 
the  air,  under  ground.  Which  organ  is  changed  to  fit  each  ani- 
mal for  its  peculiar  mode  of  life  ? 

If,  then,  we  would  see  that  the  mole  is  fitted  to  make  its  way 
under  ground,  what  ought  we  especially  to  examine  ?  Let  the 
children  examine  the  animal,  and  describe  anything  they  see.  Let 
them  observe  the  beautiful  adaptation  of  the  fore  limbs  to  the 
work  of  digging  and  boring,  and  lead  them  to  admire  this.  This 
extremity  is  broad,  strong,  and  spade-like  in  shape,  being  scarcely 
divided  into  distinct  fingers.  It  is  placed  obliquely,  so  that  the 
inner  edge  is  the  lowest,  thus  forming  a  complete  instrument  for 
throwing  the  soil  behind  the  animal  as  it  proceeds  in  its  excava- 
tions. The  arm  on  which  this  hand  is  placed  is  thick,  strong,  and 
muscular.  How  beautifully  is  all  this  contrived  for  a  little  mining 
animal !  Continuing  the  examination,  we  see  other  adaptations 
no  less  admirable  than  these.  The  head  is  pointed  ;  the  end  of 
the  snout  is  bone  rather  than  gristle  ;  the  body  is  of  a  conical 
form,  and  the  chief  strength  lies  in  the  fore  part.  The  animal  is 
covered  with  a  close,  soft,  velvety  fur,  which  does  not  impede  its 
progress  while  burrowing,  and  which  does  not  retain  the  wet  and 
mud.  As  the  mole  works  in  darkness,  it  therefore  needs  but  little 
sight ;  and  we  find  its  eyes  are  small,  and  are  protected  from  in- 
jury by  the  fur  which  surrounds  them.  It  is  directed  in  the  pur- 
suit of  its  prey,  and  in  escaping  from  its  enemies,  by  the  senses  of 
smelling  and  hearing,  both  of  which  are  very  acute.  Thus,  by  an 
adaptation  of  the  same  organ  which  in  the  monkey  is  a  perfect 
hand  for  grasping,  and  in  the  bat  a  wing  for  flight,  the  mole  is 


LESSONS   ON   ANIMALS. — THIRD   STEP.  327 

fitted  by  its  Creator  to  live  under  ground.  But  why  should  its 
habitation  be  under  the  earth  ?  It  finds  there  the  food  on  which 
it  subsists,  viz.,  worms,  and  the  grubs  of  various  insects.  \  It  be- 
longs to  the  class  called  insect-feeders*  and,  whilst  satisfying  its 
own  cravings,  it  also  renders  essential  service  to  the  farmer,  by 
clearing  the  soil  of  creatures  that  might  injure  his  crops. 

Under  the  mole-hills,  which  are  often  so  abundant  in  fields, 
are  the  nests  of  the  mole.  These  are  of  a  conical  form,  and, 
being  carefully  lined  with  vegetable  fibre,  are  made  most  comfort- 
able for  its  young,  which  are  reared  with  great  care  and  tender- 
ness. There  are  always  several  galleries  leading  to  the  nests, 
which  furnish  roads  of  egress  and  ingress. 

How  beautiful  an  instance  does  this  animal  afford  of  the  won- 
derful instinct  implanted  in  animals,  to  guide  them  in  the  preser- 
vation of  life  !  Remark  to  the  children  that  God  has  given  to 
every  animal  just  the  particular  organ  that  it  needs.  The  bird  has 
wings,  and  flies ;  the  monkey,  has  four  hands,  and  grasps  the  trees. 
Animals  do  that  which  God  intends  them  to  do.  What  lesson 
does  this  teach  us  ?  To  use  aright  that  which  God  gives  us. 
Animals  know  not  who  gave  them  the  organs  which  are  so  neces- 
sary to  them,  but  we  do  know  who  made  us.  "What,  then,  is  our 
duty  ?  To  praise  and  bless  God. 

The  Bear. 

First  call  upon  the  children  to  state  what  organs  undergo  a 
change  to  adapt  each  animal  to  its  peculiar  locality  and  varied 
propensities,  and  then  let  them  describe  the  changes  they  have 
already  traced.  Present  them  with  a  picture  of  a  bear.  Call 
upon  them  to  describe  its  general  appearance — it  is  thick,  clumsy, 
and  shaggy,  with  short  limbs  and  a  lazy  gait.  Now  in  these  re- 
spects it  is  very  different  from  the  animals  upon  which  they  have 
had  instruction.  Draw  from  them  all  they  know  as  to  the  habits 
of  the  bear.  Let  them  examine  especially  the  organs  connected 
with  the  procuring  of  food,  and  consequent  preservation  of  life. 
They  should  observe  the  manner  in  which  the  bear  places  the 

*  Inscctivora. 


328  LESSONS    ON   ANIMALS. — THIRD    STEP. 

entire  sole  of  the  foot  on  the  ground,  in  which  it  differs  so  much 
from  the  cat  tribe,  and  by  which  it  is  enabled  to  maintain  an  up- 
right position.  Such  animals  are  called,  from  their  mode  of  walk- 
ing, plantigrade.  Do  we  use  our  feet  thus  when  we  run  ?  No. 
"When  we  run,  we  move  on  our  toes.  At  what  pace  do  we  pro- 
ceed when  we  place  the  entire  foot  on  the  ground  ?  Of  what 
character,  then,  must  be  the  motion  of  the  bear  ?  Might  we  ex- 
pect a  slow-moving  animal  to  feed  on  vegetables,  or  on  animals  ? 
The  bear  feeds  by  preference  on  vegetables,  such  as  roots,  leaves, 
and  berries  j  it  is  also  very  fond  of  honey  ;  and  only  when  these 
fail,  has  it  recourse  to  animal  food.  Its  claws  are  strong,  blunt, 
and  well  fitted  for  climbing  trees,  or  for  digging.  It  is  found  in 
northern  countries,  chiefly  in  forests  or  inaccessible  rocks,  and  in 
solitary  places.  While  the  double  teeth  of  animals  feeding  on 
insects  are  pointed,  those  of  the  bear  are  obtuse.  During  the 
winter  season,  the  food  on  which  it  subsists  entirely  fails.  What 
usually  happens  under  such  circumstances  ? 

But  when  that  all-wise  and  gracious  Being  who  rules  over  all 
creation,  fixed  the  bounds  of  this  animal's  habitation,  He  made 
provision  to  meet  this  periodic  failure  of  his  food. 

What  occurs  to  the  bat  under  similar  circumstances  ?  In  the 
same  manner  the  bear  also  falls  into  a  deep  sleep,  during  the  con- 
tinuance of  which  it  is  insensibly  nourished  by  the  fat  in  which  it 
is  incased.  WThen  in  the  spring  it  rouses  from  its  slumber,  it 
issues  forth  from  its  cave  thin  and  gaunt,  and  so  ravenous  that  it 
will  face  whatever  falls  in  its  way. 

Recapitulate  the  peculiarities  that  distinguish  the  bear  and 
adapt  its  structure  to  its  special  propensities,  and  to  the  situation 
it  occupies. 

The  Bear — (continued.) 

The  polar  bear  may  be  the  subject  of  a  second  lesson,  and  the 
children  may  be  led  to  see  in  what  it  differs  from  the  brown  bear, 
especially  in  its  color,  which  is  white,  with  a  tinge  of  yellow ;  and 
also  in  the  form  of  its  body,  which  is  much  elongated  ;  and  in 
what  manner  its  immense  paws,  covered  underneath  by  coarse 
hair,  give  it  security  in  walking  over  the  slippery  ice ;  and  that 


LESSONS   ON   ANIMALS. — THIRD   STEP.  329 

the  layer  of  fat  in  which  it  is  incased  is  the  best  covering  for  pre- 
serving it  from  the  injurious  effects  of  the  cold  of  a  polar  region. 
It  feeds  of  necessity  almost  entirely  on  animal  food,  such  as  the 
whale,  the  seal,  the  walrus,  and  fish.  It  is  an  excellent  swimmer. 

Bears  are  very  remarkable  for  maternal  affection.  The  fol- 
lowing history,  related  in  one  of  the  polar  voyages,  develops  this 
trait  in  their  character,  and  may  be  made  use  of  by  the  teacher  to 
illustrate  the  affection  bestowed  on  the  children  themselves  by  their 
own  mothers ;  the  trouble,  anxiety,  and  pain  they  undergo,  and 
the  return  of  obedience  and  love  which  such  affection  claims : 

Early  one  morning  the  man  at  the  masthead  gave  notice  that 
three  bears  were  fast  making  their  way  across  the  ice  to  the  ship. 
They  had  no  doubt  been  invited  by  the  scent  of  the  blubber  of  a 
walrus,  which  had  been  set  on  fire,  and  was  burning  on  the  ice. 
They  proved  to  be  a  she  bear  and  her  two  cubs.  They  ran 
eagerly  to  the  fire,  and  drew  out  from  the  flames  part  of  the  flesh 
yet  unconsumed,  and  devoured  it  voraciously.  The  crew  from  the 
ship  threw  out  great  pieces  of  the  flesh  of  the  walrus.  These  the 
old  bear  carried  away  singly,  laid  each  piece  before  her  cubs,  and 
dividing  them,  gave  to  each  a  share,  reserving  a  very  small  por- 
tion for  herself.  As  she  was  fetching  the  last  piece,  the  sailors 
levelled  their  muskets  at  the  cubs,  shot  them  both  dead,  and 
wounded  the  dam  in  her  retreat,  but  not  mortally.  It  would  have 
drawn  tears  of  pity  from  any  but  savage  hearts,  to  have  witnessed 
the  affectionate  concern  manifested  by  the  poor  beast,  in  the  last 
moments  of  her  expiring  young.  Though  she  was  sorely  wounded, 
and  could  scarcely  crawl  to  the  place  where  they  lay,  she  carried 
the  lump  of  flesh  which  she  had  fetched,  as  she  had  done  others 
before,  tore  it  in  pieces,  and  laid  it  before  them ;  and  when  she 
saw  that  they  refused  to  eat  it,  she  placed  her  paws  first  upon  one, 
then  upon  the  other,  and  attempted  to  raise  them  up  :  all  the  while 
it  was  piteous  to  hear  their  moan.  Finding  that  she  could  not  stir 
them,  she  went  off,  and  when  she  had  got  to  some  distance,  she 
looked  back  and  moaned  ;  and  that  not  availing  to  entice  them 
away,  she  returned,  and  smelling  around  them,  began  to  lick  their 
wounds.  She  went  off  a  third  time  as  before,  and  having  crawled 
a  few  paces,  looked  again  behind,,  her,  and  for  some  time  stood 


330  LESSONS    ON   ANIMALS. THIKD    STEP. 

moaning.  Finding  at  last  that  they  were  cold  and  lifeless,  she 
raised  her  head  toward  the  ship,  and  growled  her  resentment  to 
their  murderers,  which  they  returned  by  shooting  her  dead.  She 
fell  between  her  cubs,  and  died  licking  their  wounds." 

The  attachment  of  the  bear  to  her  cubs,  and  her  wrath  when 
deprived  of  them,  is  often  alluded  to  in  the  Scriptures.  In  Hosea 
xiii.  8,  the  Lord  threatens  to  meet  his  people  who  had  forsaken 
him,  "  as  a  bear  bereaved  of  her  whelps."  There  is  a  similar 
allusion  in  2  Samuel  xvii.  8  :  "  For,  said  Hushai,  thou  knowest 
thy  father  and  his  men,  that  they  be  mighty  men,  and  they  be  chafed 
in  their  minds,  as  a  bear  robbed  of  her  whelps  in  the  field." 

A  Weasel. 

The  recapitulatory  questions  may  be  put  in  the  following  man- 
ner, with  a  view  to  variety  in  the  mode  of  presenting  the  subject 
to  the  children.  This  is  very  important,  as  a  means  of  keeping 
up  interest,  and  giving  more  exercise  to  the  mind. 

What  animals  have  you  found  fitted  to  live  amidst  trees  ? 
What  kind  of  animal  is  suited  to  chasing  its  prey  in  the  air  ? 
What  change  in  the  formation  of  another  animal  renders  it  a  good 
miner,  and  suited  to  feed  on  insects?  What  kind  of  feet  are  best 
adapted  to  a  heavy,  slow-moving  animal  ?  Would  such  an  ani- 
mal be  able  to  pursue  its  prey  ?  Of  what  nature,  then,  may  we 
expect  to  find  its  food  ?  But  we  now  come  to  a  bloodthirsty, 
flesh-eating  race,  of  which  the  first  family  live  upon  vermin  and 
poultry  ;  they  must  therefore  be  able  to  creep  through  very  small 
holes,  to  thrust  themselves  into  crevices,  to  crawl  under  fences, 
and  sometimes  to  climb  heights.  The  children  should  endeavor  to 
conceive  what  description  of  body  and  what  organs  would  adapt 
these  creatures  for  such  habits  and  propensities.  Who  ordained 
their  food  to  be  of  such  a  kind,  and  gave  them  the  desire  for  it  ? 
What,  then,  may  we  be  sure  of,  as  to  their  particular  formation  ? 

By  such  questions  as  these,  the  children  may  be  led  to  see  that 
animals  with  propensities  such  as  are  implanted  in  the  weasel,  need 
a  slender,  light,  flexible,  yet  powerful  body,  with  a  small  tapering 
head,  and  short  limbs  armed  with  claws.  Let  them  observe  that 


LESSONS   ON   ANIMALS. — THIRD   STEP.  331 

such  is  the  form  of  the  weasel  tribe,  by  the  actual  examination  of 
a  stuffed  specimen  or  a  picture.  Prompt  them  to  call  to  mind  any 
creatures  they  may  know  that  force  their  way  through  the  earth, 
or  wind  about  through  the  grass,  and  under  stumps  and  fences. 
"What  is  the  form  of  worms,  and  what  their  peculiar  motion  ? 

The  weasel,  and  other  animals  of  this  tribe,  are  called  worm- 
shaped^  from  their  resemblance  to  worms  in  shape  and  movement. 
Their  limbs  are  short  and  strong  ;  and  instead  of  placing  the  entire 
sole  of  the  foot  on  the  ground  like  the  bear,  they  walk  on  their 
toes.f  This  fact  having  been  told  them,  the  children  should  them- 
selves draw  the  inference,  that  their  step  is  consequently  free,  light, 
and  active.  Their  bodies  are  so  tapering  and  flexible,  that  they 
move  with  grace  and  rapidity.  Their  teeth,  being  pointed,  are 
fitted  for  seizing  and  tearing  their  prey.  They  all  emit  a  very  un- 
pleasant odor.  We  find  that  their  disposition  is  bloodthirsty,  and 
that  their  form  and  organs  are  adapted  to  the  gratification  of  these 
propensities.  Then,  by  similar  instances  of  the  form  and  organ- 
ization of  animals  being  suited  to  their  several  habits  and  propen- 
sities, of  which  the  children  themselves  may  remember  several, 
lead  them  to  the  conclusion,  that  in  God's  works  all  is  harmony. 

There  is  another  point  to  which  attention  should  be  drawn, 
viz.,  the  providence  of  God  in  the  creation  of  a  race  of  animals, 
which,  while  satisfying  their  own  appetite,  prove  useful  to  man  by 
preventing  the  excessive  increase  of  vermin  that  by  feeding  upon 
grain  do  farmers  so  much  injury. 

The  Stoat. 

The  children  should  compare  this  animal  with  the  preceding 
one,  and  point  out  any  features  in  which  they  are  alike,  or  in 
which  they  differ.  The  stoat  is  larger  than  the  weasel,  and  is 
especially  distinguished  by  the  changes  that  take  place  in  its  fur 
as  winter  approaches.  In  summer  this  is  of  a  reddish  brown;  but 
in  those  animals  which  inhabit  northern  countries  it  becomes  of  a 
pure  white  in  winter,  except  the  tip  of  the  tail,  which  is  always 

*  Vermiform. 

t  They  are  called  digitigrade,  or  movers  on  the  toes. 


332  LESSONS   ON   ANIMALS. — THIRD   STEP. 

black.  Why  this  change  ?  One  reason  is,  that  the  gracious  Cre- 
ator thus  enables  this  creature  to  escape  observation  when  the 
ground  is  covered  with  snow.  The  change  has  also  another  ad- 
vantage ;  for  its  white  coat  enables  it  better  to  resist  the  intense 
cold  of  Siberia,  as  the  heat  of  its  body  does  not  pass  off  so  rapidly 
as  it  would  if  its  color  were  dark.  (The  children  may  not  under- 
stand the  reason  of  this,  but  the  fact  is  very  interesting.)  An- 
other provision  for  its  comfort  is,  that  the  fur  becomes  thicker  in 
winter.  Man,  being  possessed  of  reason,  is  able  to  provide  for  the 
changes  of  seasons ;  but  God  administers  more  immediately  to  the 
necessities  of  the  brute  creation.*  The  fur  of  the  stoat  is  called 
ermine.  It  is  considered  very  valuable,  and  forms  the  robes  of 
kings  and  nobles.  The  hunter  seeks  it  in  the  winter  season. 
Why  ?  The  facts  on  which  the  answer  to  such  a  question  de- 
pends have  been  already  told  the  children. 

The  Ferret. 

The  children  should  describe  the  animal,  its  slender,  worm-like 
body,  short  legs,  sharp  claws,  pointed  teeth,  and  piercing  eyes,  and 
then  determine  to  which  of  the  animals  already  examined  it  bears 
the  most  resemblance.  They  should  state  any  differences  they 
perceive,  and  be  led  to  infer,  from  the  similarity  of  the  organs  and 
form  of  this  animal  to  those  of  the  weasel  and  stoat,  that  its  hab- 
its and  propensties  must  be  similar  to  theirs.  The  sanguinary  dis- 
position of  this  creature  is  turned  to  account,  in  using  it  to  clear 
our  premises  from  vermin ;  but  though  employed  and  domesticated 
by  man,  it  seems  quite  incapable  of  attachment  to  its  owner. 

The  Sable. 

This  digitigrade,  vermiform,  carnivorous  creature,  is  interesting 
from  the  high  value  at  which  its  fur  is  estimated. 

The  sable  is  found  in  the  forests  and  mountains  of  Siberia ;  and 
owing  to  the  extreme  cold  of  this  icy  region,  and  the  fact  of  the 

*  The  children  may  be  led  themselves  to  notice  such  facts.  They  know  that 
man  has  reason,  and  animals  instinct,  and  they  will  be  able  to  see  the  reason  for 
this  different  provision. 


LESSONS   ON  ANIMALS. — TIIERD   STEP.  333 

chase  being  generally  pursued  in  winter,  the  fur  of  the  animal 
being  most  thick  and  rich  at  that  season,  the  poor  hunter  is  ex- 
posed to  extreme  peril,  and  often  perishes  amidst  the  pathless 
wilds.  The  chase  of  this  animal  is  a  punishment  imposed  on  the 
exiles  of  the  Russian  Government,  who  are  required  to  furnish  a 
certain  number  of  skins  annually. 

Points  of  interest  to  which  the  children's  attention  may  be 
directed :  The  beautiful  provision  made  for  the  necessities  of  this 
animal  by  a  beneficent  Creator,  in  the  thickening  of  its  fur  in  the 
winter  season,  and  in  the  continuation  of  this  covering  to  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  toes ;  and  also  the  fact  of  man  being  able  to 
appropriate  such  animals  to  himself  so  as  to  derive  advantage  from 
them. 

As  a  summary,  the  children  should  describe  whatever. is  com- 
mon in  the  habits  and  organs  of  this  race  of  animals.  They 
should  also  remark  upon  the  office  they  perform  in  nature. 


DOMESTIC    DOGS. 

Spaniels. 

The  children  should  again  examine  the  picture  of  the  varieties 
of  dogs,  and  then  endeavor  to  make  out  what  peculiarity  distin- 
guishes the  spaniel  from  others  of  its  race.  It  has  a  long  head, 
with  a  pointed  muzzle ;  its  ears  are  soft,  long,  and  pendent,  fitted 
to  gather  the  sound  of  footsteps  from  the  ground ;  its  hair  is  silky 
and  waving,  and  either  of  a  red  liver  color,  or  black  and  white ; 
the  tail  bushy.  Its  scent  is  very  delicate,  and  guides  it  in  the 
pursuit  of  its  prey.  It  is  exceedingly  docile,  intelligent,  and  affec- 
tionate. Many  instances  are  on  record  of  its  attachment  to  its 
owner.  It  has  been  known  to  preserve  the  recollection  of  its  mas- 
ter, and  to  recognize  him  after  an  absence  of  so  long  duration  that 
his  friends  had  forgotten  him.  There  are  several  varieties  of  the 
spaniel.  Some,  as  lap  dogs,  are  very  small ;  others  are  larger,  and 
are  employed  in  field  sports.  One  species,  from  its  mode  of  mark- 
ing its  prey,  is  called  the  setter.  The  following  account  well  de- 
scribes the  characteristics  of  this  dog  :  "A  setter  dog  should  be  a 


334:  LESSONS   ON   ANIMALS. — THIRD   STEP. 

fine  land  spaniel  that  will  range  well,  and  yet  at  such  absolute 
command,  that  when  he  is  in  full  career,  one  '  hem '  of  his  master 
shall  make  him  stand  still,  gaze  about  him,  and  look  in  his  mas- 
ter's face,  as  it  were  expecting  directions  from  him  whether  to  pro- 
ceed, stand  still,  or  retire.  But  the  main  thing  he  is  to  be  taught 
is,  when  he  sees  and  is  near  his  prey,  of  a  sudden  to  stand  still,  or 
fall  down  flat  on  his  belly,  without  making  any  noise  or  motion  till 
his  master  comes  up."  What  a  lesson  does  such  a  dog  teach  chil- 
dren !  "What  is  there  in  this  animal  they  may  imitate  ?  His 
prompt  obedience ;  his  desire  to  please,  and  to  do  his  appointed 
work ;  his  self-denial,  giving  up  his  own  pleasure  to  that  of  his 
master. 

The  pointer  is  another  dog  also  employed  by  the  sportsman. 
It  resembles  the  spaniel,  but  it  has  less  hair,  nor  is  its  hair  waving. 
This  dog  is  trained  to  stop  and  to  point  to  the  spot  where  game 
lies  hid.  Its  natural  instinct  is  to  approach  its  prey  stealthily, 
and  then,  pausing  for  an  instant,  to  spring  upon  it  with  an  unerring 
aim  derived  from  this  pause.  •  Education  has  converted  this  short 
rest  and  rapid  spring  into  a  fixed  and  deliberate  rest,  which  has 
been  thus  quaintly  described  :  "  This  semicolon  in  his  proceedings, 
man  converts  into  a  full  stop." 

The  dogs  called  hounds  are  used  in  hunting  the  deer,  fox,  hare, 
and  otter.  They  are  keen  of  scent,  and  are  kept  in  numbers, 
called  a  pack.  Their  fleetness  is  so  great  that  the  swiftest  horse 
alone  can  keep  pace  with  them.  The  tone  of  their  cry  is  deep 
and  mellow,  but  the  neighborhood  of  a  dog  kennel  is  not  very 
agreeable,  as  they  make  a  sad  howling  when  fed.  The  feeding 
of  a  dog  kennel  furnishes  a  proof  of  the  complete  obedience  to 
•which  these  animals  can  be  trained.  "  They  are  hungry,  and 
know  that  they  are  about  to  be  fed,  but  they  manifest  no  rebel- 
lious impatience.  The  feeder  stations  himself  at  the  door  which 
separates  the  outer  kennel  from  the  feeding  room.  On  his  arrival, 
a  cry  of  joy  is  set  up  by  the  whole  pack,  but  it  is  instantly  silenced 
at  his  command.  He  calls,  '  Juno ' — Juno  passes  out ;  '  Ponto ' — 
Ponto  follows ;  and  so  on  through  the  pack,  even  should  there  be 
as  many  as  thirty  couples.  If  a  young  dog  should  attempt  to 
move  out  of  his  order,  he  is  sent  back ;  he  recollects  his  punish- 


LESSONS    ON   ANIMALS. THIRD   STEP.  335 

ment,  and  seldom  transgresses  again.     The  pack  is  brought  to  this 
state  of  perfect  discipline  by  gentle  correction." 

The  greyhound  is  remarkable  for  the  great  beauty  and  elegant 
lightness  and  symmetry  of  its  form,  peculiarly  fitting  it  for  fleet- 
ness  and  agility.  Its  head  is  very  pointed,  ears  short  and  erect, 
but  pendent  at  their  tips.  Its  limbs  are  slender,  its  body  thin,  and 
standing  high  ;  its  fur  smooth,  with  short  hairs.  In  disposition  it 
is  gentle  and  affectionate.  It  is  principally  used  in  hunting  the 
hare,  which  it  pursues  chiefly  by  sight,  not  having  so  keen  a  scent 
as  other  dogs  of  the  chase. 

The  terrier  is  another  of  the  sporting  dogs.  Two  of  these 
dogs  usually  accompany  the  fox  hounds.  They  are  also  most  use- 
ful in  catching  rats.  The  terrier  is  a  thick-set,  brisk-looking  ani 
mal,  with  rather  short  legs,  its  muzzle  not  projecting  so  much  as 
that  of  the  spaniel.  Its  short  legs  enable  it  to  creep  under  the 
grass  and  through  brakes  and  bushes.  There  are  two  species : 
one,  the  Scotch  terrier,  has  very  rough  and  wiry  hair ;  the  other 
has  a  smoother  coat,  and  altogether  is  more  delicate  in  appearance. 
It  is  supposed  that  the  terrier  is  the  native  dog  of  the  British  Isles. 
It  is  remarkable  for  the  eagerness  and  courage  with  which  it  makes 
its  way  into  the  earth  after  those  animals,  from  the  fox  to  the  rat, 
which  are  usually  called  vermin.  It  possesses  great  sagacity,  and 
is  most  daring  in  its  attacks  upon  larger  animals.  It  is  used  as  a 
guard  to  the  house,  as  well  as  in  the  chase. 

These  lessons  on  the  sporting  dogs  may  be  useful  as  exercises 
for  the  children  in  drawing  out  a  description  of  the  various  dogs 
they  may  see  in  pictures,  or  with  which  they  may  be  familiar,  the 
teacher  supplying  whatever  escapes  their  observation.  They 
should  be  led  to  observe  the  education  these  dogs  receive,  and  the 
improvement  it  produces,  and  draw  the  inference  that  they  should 
themselves  value  education,  and  be  thankful  for  being  taught. 
Not  only  are  the  senses  of  these  dogs  rendered  more  acute  by 
their  being  used  in  the  service  of  man,  but  they  are  also  wonder- 
fully trained  to  forego  the  indulgence  of  their  own  natural  propen 
sities,  and  to  use  their  powers,  not  for  their  own  gratification,  but 
for  that  of  their  master.  Their  carnivorous  appetites  would 
prompt  them  immediately  to  devour  the  animal  which  their  scent 


336  LESSONS    ON   ANIMALS. — THIRD    STEP. 

has  discovered,  were  they  not  trained  to  obey  their  master  at  the 

sacrifice  of  their  own  inclinations. 

* 

DOGS — (continued). 

In  what  service  are  those  dogs  employed,  upon  which  you 
have  had  lessons  ?  What  organs  are  most  useful  in  the  chase  ? 
'How  would  you  characterize  their  motion  ?  How  are  their  feet 
adapted  to  fleet  motion  ?  Why,  for  instance,  can  they  run  more 
swiftly  than  the  bear  ?  In  what  respect  are  their  bodies  better 
fitted  for  motion  than  that  of  the  bear  ?  They  are  light  and  slen- 
der, and  their  muzzle  pointed.  Now  repeat  together  :  "The  dogs 
of  the  chase  are  fitted  for  rapid  motion  by  being  digitigrade,  and 
by  having  a  light,  slender  body,  and  pointed  muzzle."  What 
sense  is  very  important  in  directing  their  pursuit  ?  How  has  the 
Creator  wisely  provided  for  this  necessity  ?  What  do  they  need 
in  addition  to  the  power  of  pursuing  their  prey  ?  The  power  of 
catching  and  eating  it.  By  what  organs  are  these  actions  accom- 
plished ?  By  the  teeth  and  claws.  How  are  their  teeth  and 
claws  fitted  for  seizing  and  eating  animals  ?  What  is  essential  to 
the  life  of  animals  ?  What  is  the  chief  food  of  dogs  ?  How  are 
they  fitted  for  their  flesh  eating  propensity  ?  What  are  the  les- 
sons which  their  history  affords  you  ?  Tell  me  some  other  uses 
of  dogs  other  than  that  of  the  chase.  They  guard  our  houses, 
our  property,  and  our  lives.  Here  is  a  picture  of  two  dogs  which 
are  especially  useful  as  guards  to  our  dwellings  and  property — the 
bulldog  and  the  mastiff.  What  do  you  observe  when  you  com- 
pare these  with  the  spaniel  tribe  ?  The  head  is  thicker,  the  muzzle 
short,  and  the  aspect  very  fierce.  They  are  bold  and  ferocious. 
How  does  man  make  use  of  this  disposition  ?  He  turns  it  against 
those  who  would  injure  him  or  his  property.  There  is  another 
very  useful  dog,  which  perhaps  some  of  you  may  have  seen,  which 
is  much  used  in  the  old  countries  in  watching  and  guarding  flocks 
on  the  mountains,  and  in  driving  them  from  one  place  to  another. 
What  dog  is  this  ?  The  shepherd's  dog.  What  does  the  shep- 
herd's dog  do  ?  Yes  ;  he  drives  the  sheep  along  the  streets  ;  he 
keeps  them  together,  and  allows  none  to  straggle.  Looking  at  his 


LESSONS    ON   ANIMALS. — THIKD   STEP.  337 

master,  he  receives  his  directions,  and  then  faithfully  and  saga- 
ciously executes  his  will.  The  dog  you  see  thus  employed  in  the 
streetfi-is  called  a  drover.  The  dog  that  guards  the  mountain  flocks 
is  a  much  finer  animal,  and  it  is  very  beautiful  to  see  how  he  can 
keep  a  very  large  flock  of  sheep  within  their  proper  bounds, 
bringing  up  every  straggler  without  any  violence,  and  knowing 
the  sheep  of  his  master  from  those  of  every  other  flock.  Do  you 
think  that  it  is  natural  to  these  dogs  to  take  care  of  sheep  ?  No. 
How,  then,  do  they  become  such  a  valuable  help  to  the  shepherd  ? 
You  remember  what  we  remarked  as  to  the  dogs  of  chase,  how 
their  natural  instincts  were  turned  to  man's  account.  "What,  then, 
is  done,  should  you  think,  with  the  drover  and  the  shepherd's  dog  ? 
They  are  educated  by  man,  who  teaches  them  their  lesson,  and 
that  which  they  thus  learn  becomes  a  second  nature  to  them. 
How  do  these  dogs  carry  out  the  lessons  given  to  them  ?  What 
virtues  do  they  display  ?  What  may  children  learn  from  them  ? 

Is  the  dog  useful  to  the  rich  only  ?  No  ;  he  is  also  the  poor 
man's  friend.  Can  you  tell  me  how  ?  Yes ;  he  will  guard  his 
clothes  while  he  is  at  work,  and  will  lead  about  the  poor  blind 
man.  The  following  is  a  remarkable  instance  of  the  docility  and 
sagacity  of  the  dog :  One  of  these  animals  was  in  the  habit  of 
conducting  a  blind  beggar  through  the  streets  of  Eome.  This 
dog,  besides  guiding  his  master  in  such  a  manner  as  to  protect  him 
from  all  danger,  learned  to  distinguish,  not  only  the  streets,  but  the 
houses  where  the  blind  man  was  accustomed  'to  receive  alms. 
Whenever  the  dog  came  to  any  one  of  these  streets,  he  would  not 
leave  it  till  a  call  had  been  made  at  every  house  where  his  master 
was  usually  supplied.  When  the  beggar  began  to  ask  alms,  and 
was  received,  the  dog  would  lie  down  to  rest ;  but  the  master  was 
no  sooner  served  or  refused,  than  the  dog  rose,  without  either 
order  or  sign,  and  proceeded  to  the  other  houses  where  the  poor 
man  generally  was  successful.  When  a  halfpenny  was  thrown 
from  a  window,  the  sagacious  animal  went  in.  search  of  it,  carried 
it  in  his  mouth,  and  placed  it  in  the  beggar's  hat.  Even  when 
bread  was  thrown,  he  would  not  take  it  unless  he  received  a  por- 
tion from  his  master's  own  hand.* 

*  A  story  renders  the  subject  under  discussion  very  attractive.    There  are 
15 


338  LESSONS   ON   ANIMALS. — THIRD   STEP, 

The  Fox. 

The  most  obvious  characteristics  of  the  fox  may  be  discovered 
by  the  children;  as,  its  pointed  head,  its  long  narrow  pupil,  and 
its  long  bushy  tail.  They  may  be  told  that  the  shape  of  the  pupil 
marks  it  as  a  nocturnal  animal ;  and  they  may  be  led  to  under- 
stand why  its  eye  should  be  so  formed,  by  considering  the  effect 
that  light  has  upon  eyes  accustomed  to  darkness,  and  to  admire 
the  goodness  which,  by  thus  enabling  the  eye  to  contract  and  take 
in  but  few  rays  of  light,  provides  for  the  comfort  of  the  animal, 
and  affords  another  instance  of  the  kind  care  that  the  Creator 
bestows  on  his  creatures. 

The  fox  is  distinguished  from  the  wolf  and  dog  by  its  longer 
and  more  bushy  tail,  its  larger  head  and  more  pointed  muzzle,  its 
long  body  and  short  limbs,  its  triangular  ears,  and  the  form  of  its 
pupils,  which  contract  under  the  influence  of  light  to  a  mere  line. 
The  odor  emitted  by  the  fox  is  very  disagreeable.  The  usual 
length  of  the  animal  is  about  two  and  a  half  feet  ;*  the  height, 
one  foot.  The  color  is  fawn,  intermixed  with  black.  The  fox 
digs  out  holes  under  ground,  to  which  our  Saviour  refers  in  Matt, 
viii.  20.  It  is  a  cunning,  wily  animal.  In  the  dusk  of  the  eve- 
ning it  steals  from  its  burrow  with  noiseless  step,  to  prowl  about 
for  prey.  Its  sense  of  smell  and  of  hearing  are  very  keen ;  it  lis- 
tens, and  snuffs  the  breeze,  attentive  to  every  sound,  and  observing 
every  odor.  With  a  crouching  attitudef  it  advances  on  its  prey  ; 
it  surprises  the  rabbits  gambolling  near  their  burrow,  the  hare  in 
her  form,  and  the  poultry  on  their  perch.  It  slaughters  all  it  finds ; 
and  when  its  appetite  is  satisfied,  it  buries  the  remainder  in  the 
earth,  to  supply  future  necessities.  It  is  exceedingly  particular  in 
the  choice  of  its  quarters.  "When  it  has  selected  the  spot  for  its 

many  very  interesting  narratives  illustrating  the  fidelity  and  sagacity  of  dogs. 
The  beautiful  story  of  the  dog  at  Bethgelert  is  well  known.  There  is  another  in 
the  "  Library  of  Entertaining  Knowledge,  Menageries,"  vol.  i.,  p.  79. 

*  When  the  children  are  told  the  size  of  an  animal,  they  may  be  required  to 
mark  it  on  the  board ;  and  also  when  told  the  color,  they  may  point  to  some 
specimen  of  the  color  named. 

t  Attitude  marks  character.  The  wolf  is  bolder  than  the  fox,  and  is  more 
erect. 


LESSONS   ON   ANIMALS. — THIRD   STEP.  339 

abode,  ifc  explores  the  country  to  see  what  advantages  it  may 
afford,  examining  every  spot  likely  to  prove  a  safe  retreat  in  the 
hour  of  danger.  Its  excessive  suspicion  and  caution  render  any 
new  object  a  source  of  distrust  and  inquietude ;  it  is  uneasy  until 
it  has  discovered  what  it  may  be,  and  approaches  for  the  purpose 
of  observation  with  slow  and  hesitating  step,  and  by  circuitous 
paths.  It  passes  the  day  at  the  bottom  of  its  hiding  place,  and 
sallies  forth  in  search  of  prey  during  the  obscurity  of  twilight  or 
the  darkness  of  night,  gliding  along  stealthily  to  surprise  the 
partridge.  When  it  cannot  find  game,  it  contents  itself  with  field 
mice,  frogs,  and  e.ven  snails.  It  is  very  fond  of  honey,  and  its 
liking  for  grapes  is  the  subject  of  a  well-known  fable,  and  is  also 
alluded  to  in  the  Bible,  Song  of  Solomon  ii.  15. 

The  young  are  playful,  and  remain  with  their  parent  about 
four  months.  She  is  tender,  watchful,  and  most  resolute  in  their 
defence.  The  children  may  be  told  these  facts,  and  then  be  ques- 
tioned upon  them,  being  required  also  to  draw  up  from  them  a 
sketch  of  the  character  of  the  fox ;  and  to  say  what  in  the  animal 
we  may  imitate,  and  what  avoid.* 

There  is  an  instance  on  record  of  the  great  sagacity  of  the  fox. 
The  Earl  of  Thanet  had  a  seat  at  Hothfield,  in  Kent,  and  another 
in  Westmoreland.  At  the  former  place  an  extraordinarily  large 
fox  had  been  taken,  and  the  earl  ordered  it  to  be  conveyed  to 
Westmoreland.  The  following  year,  in  Kent,  a  fox  which  had 
run  into  the  earth  was  dug  out,  and  declared  by  the  huntsmen  to  be 
the  very  individual  that  had  been  taken  to  Westmoreland.  Lord 
Thanet  was  incredulous,  but  having  earmarked  the  animal,  it  was 
again  removed  to  Westmoreland.  In  the  following  season  a  fox 
was  killed  at  Hothfield,  which  proved  to  be  the  one  in  question, 
and  it  is  evident  that  it  must  have  found  its  way  twice  from  West- 
moreland to  Kent,  a  distance  of  about  320  miles. 

The  Wolf. 

The  children  should  first  determine  to  which  of  the  animals 
already  examined  the  wolf  bears  the  closest  resemblance,  and  in 

*  Teachers  should  especially  avoid  having  one  plan  for  all  their  lessons. 
Variety  gives  interest,  and  draws  out  different  intellectual  powers. 


340  LESSONS   ON   ANIMALS. — THIRD   STEP. 

what  respect  it  is  like  the  dog,  as  in  its  general  form  and  appear- 
ance, its  teeth  and  claws,  &c.  Which  are  the  organs  that  mark 
the  habits  of  an  animal  ?  If  an  animal  have  claws  and  sharp- 
pointed  teeth,  what  might  we  expect  to  be  its  food  ?  And  if  it 
feed  on  animals  that  it  catches,  for  what  kind  of  motion  must  it  be 
fitted  ?  How  is  an  animal  fitted  for  pursuing  its  prey  ?  Let  the 
children  then  consider  the  wolf,  and  say  what  they  think  its  habits 
must  be.  Its  claws,  sharp  teeth,  and  light,  pointed  form,  indicate 
that  it  lives  on  animals  which  it  pursues.  What  sense  guides  car- 
nivorous animals  in  the  chase  ?  The  wolf  has  a  very  keen  scent. 
Let  them  compare  the  erect,  forward  ears  of  the  wolf,  with  the 
thrown-back  ears  of  the  pursued  hare,  and  find  out  the  reason  for 
those  of  the  one  being  directed  forward,  of  the  other  backward ; 
and  acknowledge  in  this  the  wisdom  and  the  goodness  that  fits 
each  animal  in  every  respect  for  the  habits  that  are  special  to  it. 
Having  determined  the  points  of  resemblance  between  the  wolf 
and  the  dog,  the  children  should  discover  in  what  respect  they 
differ,  and  so  arrive  at  the  characteristics  of  the  wolf.  The  wolf 
is  stronger  and  larger  than  the  dog ;  it  possesses  great  muscular 
power ;  its  height  at  the  shoulder  is  about  two  feet  six  inches,  and 
about  two  feet  four  inches  behind ;  the  length,  from  the  tip  of  the 
muzzle  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  three  feet  eight  inches  ;*  its  coat  is 
very  rough  and  coarse,  of  a  grayish  yellow  color,  with  a  black 
oblique  stripe  on  the  fore  legs ;  its  eyes  are  placed  obliquely,  and 
its  tail  hangs  down.  In  character  it  possesses  none  of  the  noble 
qualities  of  the  dog ;  whilst  it  is  ferocious,  cruel,  and  sanguinary, 
it  is  also  cunning,  wary,  and  cowardly.  In  former  times  this  ani- 
mal was  the  dread  and  terror  of  Great  Britain.  The  month  of 
January  was  then  called  wolf  month,  because  at  that  season  the 
wolves,  not  being  able  to  find  their  usual  food,  used  to  come  forth 
from  the  forests  and  attack  man.  King  Edgar  did  much  to  rid  the 
land  of  these  pests,  by  changing  the  tax  levied  upon  the  Welsh 
into  an  annual  tribute  of  300  wolves'  heads.  In  the  early  settle- 
ments of  some  portions  of  this  country  they  were  also  quite 
troublesome.  How  thankful  should  we  be  that  we  are  not  now 
exposed  to  such  dangers  !  (The  children  should  draw  the  com- 

*  The  children  should  mark  the  size  on  the  board. 


LESSONS    ON   ANIMALS. THIRD    STEP.  84:1 

parison,  and  say  what  feelings  our  improved  condition  should  in- 
spire.) There  are  many  allusions  in  Scripture  to  the  ferocious 
character  and  nocturnal  habits  of^the  wolf.  (See  Matt.  vii.  15  j 
Ezek.  xxii.  27  ;  Acts  xx.  29.) 

Though  the  wolf  is  in  general  a  solitary  animal,  it  unites  in 
troops  for  the  purpose  of  securing  its  prey,  and  shows  its  cunning 
in  the  stratagems  it  employs.  When  wolves  attack  the  deer, 
which  is  greatly  their  superior  in  swiftness,  they  arrange  them- 
selves in  the  form  of  a  semicircle,  and  creeping  slowly  toward  the 
herd,  they  either  completely  hem  them  in  and  surround  them,  or 
urge  them  by  hideous  yells  over  some  precipice  in  the  only  direc- 
tion they  leave  open  to  them. 

This  course  may  be  completed  with  reference  to  the  list  given 
at  the  end  of  the  Step. 

MISCELLANEOUS   SKETCHES. 

For  the  sake  of  variety,  occasional  lessons  may  be  given  on 
animals  belonging  to  various  classes.  Variety  secures  interest. 
For  sketch  on  a  bird,  see  "  The  Ostrich." 

1.  Sketch  of  a  Lesson  on  the  Ostrich. 

Adaptation  of  its  structure  to  its  mode  of  life : 

1.  The  size  of  the  head  is  adapted  to  its  long  and  slender 
neck. 

2.  The  eye,   furnished  with  an  additional  lid  which  can  be 
drawn  down  at  pleasure,  is  peculiarly  protected  against  the  intense 
heat  of  the  sun,  and  the  fine  sand  of  the  desert  lands  in  which  it 
dwells. 

3.  The  feathers  of  the  wings,  being  loose,  and  not  furnished 
with  barblets,  aid  the  bird  in  running. 

4.  The  great  strength  of  its  large  legs  enables  it  the  better 
to  take  those  long  journeys  which  it  is  obliged  to  travel  in  search 
of  food. 

5.  The  membrane  of  the  foot,  and  the  pad  which  it  incloses, 
give  this  bird  lightness  and  buoyancy,  and  fit  it  for  its  passage 
over  sandy  deserts. 


34:2  LESSONS    ON   ANIMALS. THIRD    STEP. 

6.  The  pad  on  the  breastbone  constitutes  a  safeguard  against 
injury  from  any  hard  substance  when  the  bird  is  resting  on  the 
ground. 

The  lesson  should  conclude  by  drawing  the  proper  inference 
from  such  complete  adaptation  of  organs  to  the  peculiar  wants  of 
the  bird. 

Birds,  as  a  class,  are  referred  to  the  Fourth  Step.  It  would 
prolong  the  Third  Step  too  much,  did  it  include  a  full  course  on 
birds  as  well  as  on  mammals. 

Moreover,  children,  when  they  make  the  advance  of  a  Step, 
like  new  subjects,  as  well  as  new  plans. 

A  class  of  students  might  construct  "  The  Lion/'  "  The 
Camel,"  or  "  The  Eagle,"  as  "  The  Ostrich." 

2.  For  Sketch  on  a  Reptile — The  Tortoise. 

1.  Habits. — The  tortoise  lives  either  on  land  or  in  water.     It 
moves  slowly  on  the  ground,  but  swims  beautifully.     It  comes  on 
land  to  deposit  its  eggs,  of  which  it  lays  a  great  number  ;   scrapes 
a  hole  in  the  san$,  and  leaves  them  to  be  hatched  by  the  heat  of 
the  sun.     Creatures  that  come  from  eggs  are  birds  and  reptiles. 
How  their  eggs  may  be  distinguished  ?     The  eggs  of  birds  be- 
come hard  by  boiling ;  those  of  reptiles  become  soft.     The  eggs 
of  the  tortoise  become  soft.     What,  therefore,  it  must  be  ? 

2.  Parts,  &c. — The  tortoise  has  a  small  head  like  that  of  a 
serpent ;   four  legs ;  a  tail.     Children  to  decide  how  it  defends 
itself.     Name  means  of  defence  possessed  by  other  animals.     It 
has  no  horns,  no  sharp  teeth.     Children  to  infer  that  it  cannot 
fight.     Reference  to  the  hare  and  the  mouse  ;  also  other  creatures 
that  cannot.     What  these  do  when  an  enemy  approaches  ?     But 
the  tortoise  cannot  run  away.     How,  then,  kept  in  safety?     It 
has  a  hard  covering.     Describe  shell :    Very  strong,  thick,  and 
hard  ;  formed  of  many  pieces.     (Draw  on  the  board,  to  show  how 
these  are  joined.)     Draw  a  diagram  representing  the  shell  of  the 
back.     There  are  thirteen  large  pieces  in  the  middle,  and  twenty- 
three  round  the  margin.     Let  the  children  count  the  number  of 
pieces  which  icompose  the  shell     Under  part  also  covered  with 


LESSONS    ON    ANIMALS. THIRD    STEP.  343 

shell.  Tell  children  that  all  creatures  covered  with  this  sort  of 
armor  are  called  reptiles.  What  they  can  call  the  tortoise,  and 
why  ?  Compare  with  crocodile,  &c.  Children  to  name  the  parts 
the  shell  does  not  cover.  Tail  has  a  scaly  covering  of  its  own. 
Head  and  four  legs  uncovered.  How  protected  ?  Can  be  drawn 
into  shell.  Picture  out  the  tortoise  on  a  bright  summer  day,  float- 
ing on  its  back  in  a  calm  sea,  and  enjoying  itself.  No  enemy  able 
to  hurt  it.  How  kind  it  is  in  God  to  create  this  creature  for  happi- 
ness. After  floating  for  some  time,  it  will  want  to  swim.  With 
what  ?  How  fishes  swim  ?  How  the  tortoise  will  be  able  to 
swim  without  fins  ?  Show  how  beautifully  its  feet  are  formed  as 
"paddles"  for  this  purpose.  After  a  while  it  will  have  to  come 
to  land  to  lay  its  eggs.  "Whether  likely  to  go  far  inland,  and  why 
not  ?  Care  it  takes  to  find  a  safe  place  for  its  eggs.  Who  enables 
it  to  do  this  ?  What  would  happen  to  the  eggs  if  this  were  not 
done  ?  It  scrapes  away  the  sand  :  how  formed  for  doing  this  ? 

Summary. — The  tortoise  is  a  reptile.  It  is  protected  by  a 
hard,  strong  shell,  which  covers  its  body,  and  underneath  which  it 
can  draw  its  head  and  legs.  Its  feet  are  formed  into  "  paddles," 
to  enable  it  to  swim,  but  furnished  with  nails  hard  enough  to 
scrape  away  the  sand  where  it  wants  to  make  a  hole  for  its  eggs. 
If  time  allows,  tell  the  children  that  the  shell  is  used  for  making 
combs,  &c. ;  that  men  catch  tortoises  by  turning  them  on  their 
backs,  with  spikes,  when  they  are  on  land ;  that  they  cannot  get 
up ;  they  then  take  them  away,  and  hold  them  over  a  very  hot 
fire  ;  the  upper  shell  loosens  from  the  lower  one,  and  falls  off. 
The  poor  creature  is  then  set  free,  and  in  another  year  a  new  shell 
appears. 

Students  may  construct  a  sketch  on  "  The  Frog,"  as  "  The 
Tortoise." 

For  a  sketch  on  an  "  Invertebrated  Animal,"  see 

3.   The  Earth  Worm. 

MATTER. — I.  Habits.     II.  Parts.     III.  Uses. 
I. — 1.  Worms  live  under  ground.     They  come  to  the  surface 
when  disturbed ;  also  in  search  of  food. 


344  LESSONS    ON   ANIMALS. THIRD    STEP. : 

2.  "Worms,  when  they  appear  above  ground,  keep  their  tails 
firmly  fixed  in  their  holes,  that  they  may  retire  on  the  least  alarm. 
Even  when  altogether  on  the  ground,  they  adhere  to  the  surface, 
and  are  not  easily  removed. 

3.  Worms  feed  on  a  very  fine  mould,  which  contains  particles 
of  putrid  matter.     They  sometimes  eject  their  food.     What  they 
throw  up  is  called  worm  casts. 

II. — 1.  The  worm  is  boneless,  and  covered  with  a  thick  skin, 
which  is  formed  into  more  than  a  hundred  little  rings. 

2.  Every  ring  has  four  sharp,  hooked  bristles  on  the  under 
side.     These  the  worm  can  lift  up  or  press  down  at  will. 

3.  The  head  is  sharp  and  pointed.     It  has  a  mouth  with  two 
fleshy  lips,  but  no  eyes,  nostrils,  ears,  nor  brain. 

4.  The  worm  has  a  large  stomach,  which  runs  along  the  body 
to  the  end  of  the  tail. 

5.  The  worm  has  four  holes  down  the  back,  by  means  of  which 
it  breathes. 

6.  It  has  reddish  blood,  which  is  cold. 

III. — 1.  It  removes  and  consumes  decaying  vegetable  matter. 

2.  Worm  casts  are  a  fine  manure  for  grass. 

3.  It  loosens  the  ground. 

4.  It  serves  as  food  to  various  classes — birds,  moles,  and  fish. 

METHOD.  I. — 1.  Where  the  children  have  seen  worms? 
Where  they  hide  ?  Disturbing  causes  likely  to  bring  them  to  the 
surface ;  as,  digging,  uprooting  of  trees,  &c.  Necessity  of  the 
worms  moving  about  in  order  to  obtain  food,  brought  out  by  com- 
parison of  animals  with  plants. 

2.  Refer  to  previous  observation  and  experiment. 

3.  Children  to  judge  what  food  worms  are  likely  to  find  under 
ground — roots,  slugs,  grubs,  &c.     Why  such  food  is  unsuited  to 
the  worm  ?    It  has  no  teeth,  therefore  "its  food  must  be  soft.    Give 
information,  and  explain  putrid. 

II. — 1.  Bring  out  boneless,  by  comparison  with  the  arm,  or  by 
letting  the  children  feel  the  worm.  Illustrate  by  means  of  a  piece 
of  spring  wire  with  a  long  needle  put  through  the  ring,  to  show 
that  while  a  boneless  body  can  contract  and  lengthen,  a  body 


LESSONS   ON  ANIMALS. THIKD   STEP.  34:5 

formed  with  a  skeleton  cannot  do  so.  Show  the  use  of  this  con- 
traction and  expansion,  by  explaining  how  the  creature  moves. 
To  show  that  the  skin  should  be  tough,  refer  to  the  effect  of  dig- 
ging the  ground  with  the  hands. 

2.  The  difficulty  of  lifting  the  worm  from  the  ground.     The 
advantage  of  this  to  the  worm.    Refer  to  the  condition  of  a  worm 
on  a  street  pavement,  or  in  a  stone  quarry.    "Why,  in  such  a  place, 
it  must  perish  ? 

3.  Head. — Why  no  eyes  and  ears  ?     Refer  to  its  habitation. 
No  nostrils.     Finds  its  food  by  touch  of  lips.     Compare  animals 
having  brains,  with  brainless  animals.     Children  draw  conclusion 
from  examples. 

4.  Refer  to  the  character  of  the  food ;  whence  children  judge 
of  the  small  amount  of  nutriment  it  contains,  and  what  difference 
this  makes  as  to  the  quantity  consumed. 

5.  Refer  to  the  holes  in  our  face.     Absence  of  nostrils  ren- 
dering some  other  means  of  breathing  necessary. 

6.  Refer  again  to  the  habitation  of  the  worm.     Compare  it 
with  warm-blooded  animals  living  under  ground.     The  mole.     Its 
covering.     The  exercise  it  takes.     The  worm  has  no  covering, 
and  no  power  of  taking  rapid  exercise  ;  but  these  are  not  needed 
by  it. 

III. — 1.  Refer  to  the  natur^  of  its  food.     Effects,  if  not  re- 
moved. 

2.  Tell  this. 

3.  Compare  garden  beds  with  garden  paths,  to  show  that  in 
loosened  soil  the  rain  penetrates.     The  fibres  of  plants  expand. 

4.  Refer  to  previous  observation. 

IV.  Summary. — Children  write  out  what  matter  they  can  re- 
member under  each  head. 

Students  construct  "  The  Dor-Beetle,"  as  "The  Earth  "Worm." 

4.   The  Fish. 

I.  Habits. — Found  in  water ;  some  in  salt,   some  in  fresh ; 
some  emigrate  from  one  to  the  other  ;  some  frequent  shallow,  some 
deep  water.     Usually  they  move  with  great  rapidity,  and  in  direct 
15* 


LESSONS    ON   ANIMALS. — THIRD    STEP. 

lines,  discovering  their  prey  by  the  sense  of  sight,  darting  on  it, 
catching  it,  and  instantly  swallowing  it  alive  ;  red  blooded,  though 
cold  blooded  ;  breathing  air  found  in  water  by  means  of  gills ; 
dying  when  taken  out  of  the  water  ;  young  produced  from  spawn ; 
hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

Let  the  children  condense  what  has  been  found  out.  Classify 
the  actions  of  the  fish  under  three  heads : 

1.  Moving  (swimming). 

2.  Preying. 

3.  Breathing.     (W.  B.) 

II.  Adaptation  of  Parts  to  Habits. — 1.  How  adapted  to  swim- 
ming? 

(a)  By  its  shape :    Pointed  muzzle ;  head  set  on  shoulders, 
without  a  neck ;   shoulders  rounded  ;  body  rounded  and  tapering ; 
tail  set  edgewise.     Why  ? 

(b)  By  its   covering:    Scales — strong,   light,    smooth,   water 
proof,  often  varnished.     Why  ?     Refer  to  the  artificial  flies  used 
by  anglers — formed  of  many  pieces.     Refer  to  a  suit  of  armor. 

(c)  By  its  limbs.     Fins — light,  strong,  flat,  undivided.    Why  ? 
Compare  with  position  of  the  fingers  when  swimming,  and  with 
the  webbed  foot  of  a  water  bird.     How  the  fin  offers  resistance  to 
the  water  ;   also  its  use  in  balancing  the  fish.     Refer  to  the  insta- 
bility of  the  element  in  which  the  creature  moves. 

Tail  compared  with  the  fins  as  to  size  and  position.  From 
the  difference  in  position,  lead  the  children  to  infer  that  the  use 
would  be  different.  Use  of  the  tail  in  guiding  the  course  of  the 
fish  described  and  simply  illustrated. 

2.  How  formed  for  preying. 

(a)  Eyes — size,  position.     Absence  of  eyelid.     Why  ? 

(Z>)  Mouth — its  width.  Teeth — compare  with  teeth  of  mam- 
mals, and  refer  to  the  food  of  the  fish.  Number  of  rows,  shape, 
direction. 

3.  How  formed  for  breathing  in  the  water  ?     Refer  to  the 
human  lungs,  as  a  spongy  substance,  pervious  to  air,  and  full  of 
veins,  filled  with  blood,  to  which  the  air  penetrates.     Examine 
the  gills.     How  they  differ.     External  organs,  consisting  of  a  sue- 


LESSONS    ON    ANIMALS. — THIRD    STEP.  347 

cession  of  plates.  The  skin  wrought  into  fringes  at  the  end  of 
each,  so  as  to  expose  the  greatest  possible  quantity  of  blood  to 
the  air.  By  experiment  with  a  piece  of  sea  weed,  or  of  a  buffalo 
robe,  show  that  the  blood  is  brought  into  contact  with  the  air  only 
when  the  gill  is  under  water. 

III.  Summary. — Children  write  out  what  they  can  remember 
under  each  head  and  sub-head. 

Students  construct  a  lesson  on  "  The  "Whale,"  as  "  The  Fish," 
and  then  draw  up  sketch  on  "  Comparison  of  Fish  and  Whale." 

Lessons  on  Parts  of  Animals  are  sometimes  advantageously 
given. 

EXAMPLE. 

5.  Horns  of  Animals. 

Get  the  children  to  name  any  animals  they  know  having 
horns.  Show  the  picture  of  a  cow,  a  goat,  and  a  deer.  Let 
them  find  out  the  difference  in  the  horns  of  these. 

1.  As  to  Position. — The  horns  of  kine  are  placed  in  front  of 
the  head,  and  extend  upward  and  outward.     (W.  B.)     The  horns 
of  goats  slant  backward.     (W.  B.)     The  horns  of  stags  branch 
in  different  directions.     (W.  B.)     Bring  this  out  by  drawing  the 
outline  of  a  head,  and  let  children  represent  the  three  kinds  and 
directions  of  horns. 

2.  As  to  Form. — (a)  The    horns    of  kine  are    round,   broad 
at  the  base,  and  tapering  toward  the  point.     (W.   B.)     (Com- 
pare   with    cylinder   and    cone.)     They    are    curved.     (W.   B.) 
(b)   The  horns  of  goats  have  the  same  general   form,  but   are 
larger  than  those  of  kine,  and  less  curved.     (W.  B.)     (Compare 
them.)     (c)  The  horns  of  stags  spread  out  from  the  base,  like  the 
branches  of  a  tree.     (W.  B.) 

3.  As  to  Substance. — Horn  is  a  stiff,  hard,   semitransparent, 
yellowish-brown  substance.     The  horns  of  kine  and  goats  have  a 
bony  core,  that  fills  up  the  interior  space  of  the  horn.     Stags7 
horns  differ,  in  being  solid.     (W.  B.)     Children  observe  and  de- 
scribe the  material  of  which  horns  are  composed.     Are  told  that 
the  cow's  horns  are  sometimes  used  as  drinking   cups.     Why  ? 


348  LESSON'S    ON    ANIMALS. THIRD    STEP. 

That  goats*  horns  are  the  same  in  substance.  How  stags'  horns 
differ  ? 

4.  As  to  Uses. — Horns  are  given  as  a  means  of  defence  to  crea- 
tures that  would  otherVise  be  defenceless.  (W.  B.)  (What 
cows  do  with  their  horns  ?  goats  ?  rams  ?  Eefer  to  the  poor 
hunted  stag  when  it  stands  at  bay.)  Why  God  has  given  horns 
to  these  animals  ?  (Compare  the  teeth  and  feet  of  horned  animals 
with  those  of  carnivorous  animals.) 

Students  construct  a  lesson  on  "  The  Teeth  or  Feet  of  Ani- 


LISTS     OF     SUBJECTS. 

Class  Mammalia. 

I.  Monkey.                        Fox.  Horse. 

Ourang-outang.             "Wolf.  Ass. 

Baboon.  Zebra. 

VI.  Cat. 

II.  Bat.                               Lion.  X.  Buffalo 

Tiger.  Cow. 

III.  Mole.                              Leopard.  Sheep. 
Hegdehog.                     Panther.  Goat. 
Porcupine.                     Hyena.  Antelope. 
Ant  Eater.  Camel. 

VII.  Brown  Bear.  Giraffe. 

IV.  "Weasel.                         Polar  Bear.  Deer. 
Stoat.  Eeindeer. 
Ferret.                VIII.  Seal. 

Sable.                            Whale.  XL  Beaver. 

Squirrel. 

V.  Domestic  Dogs.     IX.  Hippopotamus.  Hare. 

Spaniel.                      Rhinoceros.  Rabbit. 

Pointer.                      Elephant.  Rat. 
Hound.                       Tapir. 

Terrier.                     Pig.  XII.  Kangaroo. 

MISCELLANEOUS    SUBJECTS. 

Boa  Constrictor.           Shark.  Lobster. 

Rattlesnake.                  Dolphin.  Starfish. 

Viper.                            Torpedo.  Bee. 

Common  Snake.           Cuttlefish*  Ant. 


LESSONS    ON  ANIMALS. — FOURTH   STEP.  349 

Alligator.  Salmon.  Housefly. 

Turtle.  Cod.  Beetle. 

Tortoise.  Sole.  Spider. 

Frog.  Herring.  Earth  "Worm. 

Toad.  Pike. 


FOUKTH    STEP. 

CLASS    OF    BIEDS. 

The  teacher  should  begin  by  procuring  a  full  set  of  pictures ; 
specimens  are  still  better.  The  children  give  the  name  that  ap- 
plies to  all ;  then,  as  far  as  they  can,  the  name  that  applies  to 
each.  Are  told  that  it  is  the  object  of  the  lesson  to  put  all  these 
birds  into  classes, -or  groups.  Children  exercised  in  finding  points 
according  to  which  a  classification  may  be  made  :  According  to 
color ;  according  to  size ;  as  wild  or  tame ;  according  to  habita- 
tion, food,  or  structure.  Children  led  to  decide  on  the  best  basis 
for  classification — structure.  The  best  points  on  this  basis  are 
leaks  and  feet.  They  may  then  begin  to  classify.  If  they  need 
guidance,  teacher  may  direct  their  attention. 

I. — 1.  To  the  eagle — the  king  of  birds.  "Why  so  called  ? 
How  characterized  ?  Size,  beak,  claws.  Children  to  infer  the 
habits  indicated  by  this  structure.  Select  birds  with  similar 
characteristics;  as,  condor,  hawk,  owl.  "W.  B.  in  column  under 
title  of  "  Birds  of  Prey." 

2.  Children  to  find  a  distinct  group  of  birds.     They  choose, 
say  the  hen,  turkey,  peacock,  on  account  of  their  resemblance,   ' 
having  blunt  beaks,  strong  legs,  heavy  bodies.     "W.  B.  in  column. 
Give  the  term    Ground  Birds.      Children   say  how   this   name 
applies. 

3.  A  third  set  of  birds  to  be  found.     Children  select,  say  stork 
and  heron,   for  their  long  legs,   bony  beaks  and  necks.     Form 
column  under  "  Stilt  Birds."     Name — why  given  ? 

4.  Children  may  perhaps  next  select  the   duck,   goose,  &c. 
May  be  told  that  all  birds  that  frequent  large  bodies  of  water, 
whether  fresh  or  salt,  have  one  important  characteristic,  which 


350 


LESSONS 'ON    ANIMALS. FOUKTH    STEP. 


they  must  find  out  (webbed  feet).     Write  column  under  "  "Web- 
footed  Birds." 

5.  To  lead  them  to  discover  another  class,  they  must  be  told 
to  compare  the  feet  of  the  birds  that  remain  unclassified.     They 
will   soon   distinguish    the    climbing   birds.      Name   given,    and 
column  made. 

6.  Children  to  be  told  that  all  the  remaining  birds  are  classed 
together  as  Perching  Birds. 

II.  Children  mention  various  birds,  and  decide  in  which 
column  each  name  is  to  be  written.  The  blackboard  may  appear 
as  follows : 


Birds  of 
Prey. 

Ground 
Birds. 

Stilt 
Birds. 

Web-footed 
Birds. 

Clinibinff 
Birds. 

Perching 
Birds. 

Eagle. 

Hen. 

Heron. 

Goose. 

Woodpecker. 

Raven. 

Condor. 

Turkey. 

Stork. 

Duck. 

Parrot. 

Magpie. 

Hawk. 

Peacock. 

Flamingo. 

Penguin. 

Pigeon. 

Owl. 

Quail. 

Ibis. 

Gull. 

Canary. 

Partridge. 

Frigate  Bird. 

Lark. 

Ostrich. 

Albatross. 

Nightingale. 

Thrush. 

Wren. 

Robin. 

Kingfisher. 

In  recapitulating,  the  orders  should  be  arranged  as  given  by 
naturalists,  and  the  term  order  given.  "Whether  or  not  to  give 
scientific  terms,  as  Raptores,  may  be  left  to  the  discretion  of  the 
teacher.  The  English  terms  would  seem  to  be  as  good  as  the 
Latin ;  thus, 


1st  Order. 
Haveners. 

2d  Order. 
Perchers. 

bth  Order. 
Waders. 

Bd  Order. 
Climbers. 

tth  Order. 
Swimmers. 

U7i  Order. 
Scratchers. 

When  the  teacher  names  the  order,  the  children  should  be 
able  to  give  examples.  Examples  given  by  the  teacher;  they 
refer  to  the  order.  Lessons  need  to  be  given  on  the  subordinate 
groups;  as, 


LESSONS   ON   ANIMALS. FOURTH    STEP.  351 

(  Feeders  on  fresh  flesh. 
(  Nocturnal. 


Haveners  j     mrna  '     ")  Feeders  on  carrion. 


(  The  Crow  tribe. 
Perchers  •<  The  Swallow  tribe. 
(  The  Finch  tiibe,  &c. 

Refer  to  any  good  work  on  Natural  History.  For  example 
of  Method,  see  sketch  on 

1.   The  Swallow  Tribe. 

I.  Teacher  tells  the  children  that  they  are  about  to  inspect  a 
species  of  bird  which  spends  almost  all  its  time  in  the  air,  and 
hardly  ever  touches  earth.     Requires  them  to  tell,   first,   what 
organs  will  be  in  constant  use  (wings).     Of  what  general  charac- 
ter these  must  be  (large  and  strong).     Secondly,  which  organs 
will  hardly  be  used  at  all  (legs).     Of  what  character  these  (prob- 
ably) will  be  (small  and  slender).     Thirdly,  what  kind  of  food 
the  birds  will  be  able  to  find  in  the  air  (insects).     Fourth,  what 
birds  will  do  when  the  cold  winter  comes,  and  no  insects  are  to 
be  found  ?  (go  to  a  warmer  climate.)     Fifth,  whether  they  (chil- 
dren) can  name  the  species  they  have  thus  far  described  ? 

II.  Teacher  produces  specimen  of  the  swallow  (also  a  speci- 
men of  a  bulfinch  for  comparison).     Children  will  tell  the  struc- 
ture :    Long,   slender,  tapering,  and  light  body  (compared  with 
bulfinch)  ;  very  long  wings  (compared  with  the  body)  ;  broad  and 
forked  tail ;  very  wide  mouth  ;  very  delicate  beak  (compared  with 
that  of  bulfinch)  ;  short,  slender  legs  ;  delicate  but  long  and  curved 
claws  ;  thick  plumage,  smooth  and  glossy. 

Children  required  to  explain  the  adaptation  of  this  structure  to 
habits.  If  they  have  been  previously  trained,  it  will  no  longer 
be  found  necessary  to  question  them  on  separate  points.  They 
will  at  once  give  the  required  explanation.  Thus  :  Body  light, 
that  it  may  be  easily  sustained  in  air ;  long,  slender,  and  tapering, 
that  it  may  pass  through  air  more  swiftly  and  readily ;  thickest 
just  below  the  neck,  where  the  muscles  of  the  wings  are  devel- 


352  LESSONS    ON   ANIMALS. FOURTH    STEP. 

oped,  that  the  muscles  may  be  large  and  powerful  enough  to 
move  them ;  tapering,  for  lightness ;  tail  expanded,  to  help  to 
support  the  body ;  length  of  wing,  indicating  the  immense  power 
of  flight ;  very  wide  mouth,  for  catching  its  prey  on  the  wing  ; 
delicate  beak,  corresponding  with  the  general  delicacy  of  the  bird, 
indicating  the  soft  character  of  its  food  ;  slender  legs,  not  required 
for  walking ;  thick  plumage,  to  meet  alteration  of  temperature  ; 
glossy  plumage,  that  little  friction  may  impede  its  flight.  Teacher 
directs  attention  to  habits,  which  children  do  not  so  readily  dis- 
cover :  That  of  keeping  insects  in  the  mouth  till  many  are  col- 
lected ;  that  of  clinging  to  roofs,  &c.,  when  resting  for  a  moment 
in  flight. 

III.  Teacher  presents  specimens  of  swift  and  marten.  Chil- 
dren compare  these  with  swallow.  Find  swift  the  largest ;  can 
fly  farthest ;  marten  the  least.  Swallow  distinguished  by  the 
peculiar  beauty  and  burnish  of  its  plumage.  Information  given 
as  to  the  number  of  hours  these  birds  pass  in  the  air  daily. 
Character  of  their  movements.  (Exercise  the  conceptive  faculty.) 
Kind  of  nest.  Special  kind  of  food.  Time  of  their  appearance 
and  departure.  Countries  to  which  they  migrate.  Scripture  and 
poetical  reference. 

Summary. — Children  write  out  lesson  under  heads  : 
I.  Birds  of  swallow  tribe.     How  distinguished  ? 
II.  General  structure. 
III.  Habits,  and  adaptation  of  structure  to  them. 

2.  Incidental  Lesson  on  the  Habitations  of  Birds. 

I.  Introduction. — Get  a  list  from  the  children  with  reference 
to  the  various  habitations  and  localities  of  birds.     (W.  B.,  sup- 
plying their  omissions.)     The  list  may  stand  thus :    Eagle,  owl, 
lark,  rook,  magpie,  ostrich,  hen,  swallow,  heron,  sea  gull. 

II.  Let  the  children  say  what  they  know  about  the  eagle. 
What  sorts  of  places  it  frequents,  or  where  it  rears  its  young? 
Give  any  information  required,  and  help  the  children  to  form  a 
vivid  conception  of  the  craggy  mountain  top,  far  above  the  dis- 


LESSONS    ON   ANIMALS. FOURTH    STEP  353 

tant  village  ;  the  few  sticks  that  indicate  a  nest,  &c. ;  the  owl  in 
the  church  tower,  covered  with  ivy,  looking  forth  at  night  like  a 
sentinel ;  the  lark,  hidden  in  the  meadow,  springing  up,  soaring, 
singing ;  .the  rook,  with  its  companions  in  the  tops  of  the  tall  trees 
near  the  mansion  house  ;  the  magpie  on  the  apple  tree  in  the  cot- 
tage garden ;  the  ostrich,  with  even  pace,  faster  than  the  gallop 
of  a  horse,  scudding  over  the  interminable  expanse  of  sand ;  the 
hen  in  the  farmyard,  by  the  barn  door  ;  the  swallow  circling  above 
the  pond ;  the  heron  on  the  edge  of  the  marshy  pool  in  the  hol- 
low of  the  dark  moor ;  the  sea  gull  cresting  the  white  waves,  or 
resting  on  the  cliffs  that  border  them.  The  children  will  recognize 
the  goodness  of  God  in  peopling  the  world  with  so  many  beautiful 
and  happy  creatures.  They  will  be  ready  to  say  :  "  O  Lord,  how 
manifold  are  thy  works  ;  in  wisdom  hast  thou  made  them  all ;  the 
world  is  full  of  thy  goodness." 

CLASS   MAMMALIA. 

1.  The  children,  having  finished  the  course  on  birds,  may  be 
required  to  draw  on  their  previous  knowledge  of  mammals,  and 
to  make  a  classification  of  them  on  the  blackboard.     A  record  of 
their  work  should  be  kept. 

2.  Next  time  teacher  offers  some  help,  directing  their  atten- 
tion to  the  points  which  should  guide  them  in  classifying;  as, 
limbs,  teeth.     They  make  a  second  list. 

3.  Next  time  the  teacher  gives  them  the  number  of  orders. 
Children  make  third  .classification,   which  is  compared  with  the 
proper  one.     "Where  this  differs  from  theirs,  and  why  ? 

The  separate  groups  of  mammals  may  now  be  taken  up,  but 
usually  with  brevity.  Example  : 

1.   The  Dog  Tribe. 

I.  Origin  of  dogs.  Other  animals  of  the  dog  tribe.  Ani- 
mals of  the  dog  tribe  named.  Their  general  characteristics. 
Origin  of  the  domestic  dog.  Whether  from  the  jackal  ?  the  fox? 
the  wolf?  or  an  original  dog?  Resemblance  in  habits  to  the 
jackal,  and  in  structure  to  the  wolf.  Point  of  difference  in  posi- 


354  LESSONS   ON   ANIMALS. FOURTH   STEP. 

tion  of  the  eyes,  and  possible  reason  for  this.     Comparison  of  the 
wolf  and  dog  as  to  disposition. 

II.  Domesticated  dogs.     Different  groups,  and  characteristics 
of   each.      European   dogs  compared   with   those    of  the   East. 
Scripture  illustrated.     European  dogs  divided  into  three  groups : 

1.  Arctic  dogs. 

2.  Hunting  dogs. 

3.  Watch  dogs. 

1.  Arctic  Dogs. — Where  found  ?     From  the  name,   children 
decide  in  the  north  of  Europe  and  Iceland,  though  also  in  Kamt- 
chatka  and  China.      How  distinguished  ?     Very  sharp  muzzle ; 
pointed  ears  ;   shaggy  hair,  long  at  the  neck  ;   elevated  curled  tail ; 
color  black,  white,  or  black  and  white.     How  connected  with  the 
second  group  (by  the  Newfoundland.) 

2.  Hunting  Dogs. — Where  found  ?     In  all  the  temperate  re- 
gions, but  especially  in  Europe.     How  distinguished  (large  pen- 
dulous  ears ;    large  jaws ;    long  legs ;    thick  tails).     What   the 
group  includes  (fox  hound,  stag  hound,  pointer,  setter,  terrier,  and 
Danish  dog — spaniel  a  cross). 

3.  Watch  Dogs. — Found  in  all  temperate  climates.     Physical 
characteristics  not  so  marked  as  in  the  other   groups.     Greater 
variety  in  all  respects.     Reason  for  this.     Includes  all  shepherd 
dogs ;  also  mastiff,  bulldog,  and  greyhound ;   the  two  last  at  first 
sight  dissimilar,  but  nearly  allied,  having  delicate  feet,  slender  tail, 
good  sight,  imperfect  smell,  ferocious  disposition.    Irish  greyhound 
called  wolf  dog.     Anecdote  of.    How  the  third  group  is  connected 
with  the  first  ?     By  the  shepherd's  dog.     How  with  the  second  ? 
By  the  greyhound. 

III.  Conclusion  drawn  as  to   the  general  characteristics  of 
each  group.     The  first  are  nearest  to  a  state  of  nature  ;  the  second 
show  in  the  highest  degree  the  effects  of  physical  cultivation ;  the 
third  have  most  intelligence.     Anecdotes  proving  this.     Use  of 
the  dog  to  man,  in  every  state.     Goodness  of  God  in  giving  him 
such  a  friend. 


LESSONS   ON   ANIMALS. — FOUKTH   STEP.  355 

2.   The  Cat  Tribe. 

Animals  of  the  cat  tribe  compared  with   those  of  the  dog 
tribe.     (Terms  feline  and  canine  given.) 

1.  Compared  with  respect  to   structure :    Body,  limbs,  feet, 
shape  of  head,  eyes,  and  teeth,  covering,  feelers. 

2.  With  respect  to  habits  :  One  found  in  packs,  and  the  other 
alone,  or  with  its  mate.     Character  of  food.     Methods  of  securing 
their  prey,  &c. 

3.  With  respect  to  appearance  :  Beautiful  markings,  spots,  &C-, 
on  the  glossy  fur  of  the  one ;  shaggy  hair  of  the  other. 

4.  With  respect  to  distribution  :  The  canine  tribe  is  found  all 
over  the  globe ;  the  feline  tribe  chiefly  in  torrid  regions,  thinly 
inhabited  by  man.     Wisdom  of  this  arrangement.      Species  of 
each  tribe  distinguished.      What  species  are  found  in  the  Old 
World,  and  what  in  the  New  ? 

INCIDENTAL    LESSONS. 

3.  Animals  Used  in  Hunting. 

I.  Animals  of  the  Dog   Tribe. — Draw  from  the  children  the 
fact  that  animals  hunt  as  well  as  men.     What  kinds  of  animals 
hunt  ?     Dogs.     Children  to  say  how  the  dog  is  adapted  for  hunt- 
ing.    Refer  to  the  wolf  as  a  natural  hunter. 

II.  Animals  of  the  Cat  Tribe. — Tell  the  children  that  in  East- 
ern countries  animals  of  the  cat  tribe  are  used  for  hunting.     Let 
them  compare  these  with  creatures  of  the  dog  tribe,  and  find  out 
which  make  the  best  hunters.     Creatures  of  the  cat  tribe  (a)  can- 
not run  far  ;  (Z>)  are  less  docile  ;    (c)  are  more  bloodthirsty.     Give 
account  of  the  chetah,  and,  from  the  facts  before  discovered,  let 
the  children  say  why  it  must  be  brought  in  a  cart  to  the  field  ? 
Why  blindfolded  ?     Why  allowed  to  drink  the  blood  of  its  prey  ? 

III.  Animals  of  the  "Weasel  Tribe. — Produce  picture  or  speci- 
men of  a  ferret.     Refer  to  its  tribe.     Kind  of  animals  it  hunts 
(rats  and  mice).     How  adapted  to  this  kind  of  hunting  ?     Tell 
children  that  it  is  often  muzzled,  and  set  to  hunt  rabbits.     Com- 
pare the  cat,  dog,  and  ferret,  as  tameable  creatures.     Refer  to  the 


356  LESSONS    ON    ANIMALS. FOURTH    STEP. 

otter  and  ichneumon,  creatures  of  the  ferret  tribe,  as  employed  in 
India  and  Egypt.  Conclude  with  reference  to  the  power  given  by 
God  to  man  over  the  inferior  creatures.  How  it  should  be  used  ? 


4.  Sketch  on  Rodents. 

I.  Order. — Present  stuffed  specimen,  or  picture  of  the  squirrel, 
rabbit,  hare,  rat,  mouse.     All  or  any,  with  a  picture  of  a  beaver. 
Children,  who  name  each,  are  told  they  are  grouped  together,  and 
required  to  find  the  basis  of  classification.     It  might  be  size,  for 
they  are  small  animals ;    or  disposition,   for  they  are  timid  ;    or 
character  of  food,  for  they  live  on  hard  substances ;  but  the  chil- 
dren know  that  animals  are  classed  according  to  structure,  espe- 
cially the  structure  of  the  feet  and  teeth.     Examination  of  the 
feet  presents  no  special  characteristics.     We  must  look  to  the 
teeth.     These  creatures  are  named  from  the  manner  in  which  they 
use  these.     They  gnaw,  and  are  therefore  called  rodents. 

II.  Structure  of  Teeth. — Teeth  of   specimens  examined,   and 
diagram  placed  on  the  board. 

1.  Incisors :    Sharp  at  the  edge,   chisel  shaped,  meeting  the 
opposite  teeth' in  a  semicircle  ^^.     Tell  children  that  the  front 
surface  is  of  the  hardest  enamel,  the  inner  surface  of  softish  bone. 
What  must  happen  to  teeth  that  are  constantly  working  against 
very  hard  substances  ?      They  must  wear  away  rapidly.     How 
this  is  provided  for  by  constant  growth  of  teeth,  &c.     Which  sur- 
face will  wear  away  the  sooner  ?    (The  inner  surface.)     Effect  of 
this  arrangement  on  the  shape  of  the  teeth — securing  always  a 
sharp  edge.   , 

2.  Grinders  :  Ridges — their  direction,  from  side  to  side.    Chil- 
dren find  in  what  direction  the  rodent  must  move  its  mouth  to 
grind  its  food.     Are  told  the  creatures  are  furnished  with  a  strong 
muscle,  which  gives  great  power  to  the  movement  of  the  jaw. 

"3.  Canine  teeth  absent.     Rodents  have  no  weapon  of  defence. 
Children  to  find  five  means  by  which  they  are  protected. 

1.  They  are  small. 

2.  They  are  very  timid. 


LESSONS   ON   ANIMALS. — FOURTH   STEP.  357 

3.  They  have  large  eyes. 

4.  They  have  ears  pointing  backward. 

5.  They  have  long  bodies. 

Use  of  each  point  to  the  rodent  ? 

III.  Summary. — Substance  written  on  the  board  as  dictated 
by  the  children ;  the  teacher,  however,  leaving  ellipses  for  them  to 
supply  in  reproducing  the  lesson  on  paper. 

Gnawing  animals  include .  They  are  so  named -because 

.  They  have  sharp  ,  which  enables  them  to  . 

The  front  surface  is  ,  the  under  merely  .  Constant 

feeding  upon  causes  .  This  is  remedied  by  . 

The  soft  bone  wears  away,  while  the .  The  advantage  of 

this  is .  The  grinders  are  — : — ,  so  that  in  masticating  the 

food  the  jaw  must  be .  The  jaws  have  great  power,  owing 

to .  Canine  teeth  are .  The  rodents  have  many  ene- 
mies ;  cannot ,  but  often  escape,  because . 

5.    Clothing  of  Animals. 

I.  Introduction. — Let  the  children  know  the  subject  of  the 
lesson.     Get  them  to  name  animals  having  different  clothing.     If 
they  are  slow  in  giving  examples,  suggest  the  animal,  and  let  them 
say  how  it  is  clad.     Put  down  each  answer  on  the  board,  thus : 

The  cat  is  covered  with  fur. 

The  herring  is  covered  with  scales. 

The  horse  is  covered  with  hair. 

II.  Classification. — Help  the   children  to    classify  the   facts, 
putting  them  on  the  board,  asking  where  each  creature  lives,  and 
marking  those  that  live  on  earth  with  fig.  1 ;  those  that  live  on 
air,  with  fig.  2  ;  those  that  live  both  on  land  and  in  water,  with 
fig.  3  ;    give  the  term  amphibious  ;  and  those  that  live  in  water 
only,  with  fig.  4.     Children  state  the  clothing  of  each  set  (W.  B.) 
from  dictation.     Mammals  are  clothed  with  fur,  hair,  wool,  or  skin 
only.     Birds  are  clothed  with  feathers ;  some  have  an  undergar- 
ment of  down.     Reptiles  with  a  thick  skin,  scales,  or  shelly  plate. 
Fish,  with  thin  scales. 


358  LESSONS   ON   ANIMALS. FOURTH    STEP. 

III.  Adaptation. — Let  the  children  imagine  a  creature  like  a 
horse,  with  a  covering  of  feathers.  Why  they  would  not  suit 
him?  They  would  be  much  too  warm.  "With  a  covering  of 
scales  not  warm  enough,  yet  would  check  perspiration.  Refer  to 
the  condition  of  horses  after  a  gallop ;  the  structure  of  their  skin, 
&c.  With  a  shelly  covering ;  this,  by  its  weight  and  stiffness, 
would  impede  motion.  The  horse  has  a  skin  just  suited  to  it.  But 
feathers  are  the  covering  for  the  eagle — why  ?  Scaly  plates  for  a 
crocodile — why  ?  A  thick,  hairless  skin  for  an  elephant — why  ? 
Scales  for  a  mackerel — why  ?  Why  jointed  ?  Go  over  the  list, 
leading  the  children  to  see  the  adaptation  in  each  case.  One  can- 
not do  this  without  reference  to  the  infinite  wisdom  and  goodness 
of  God  manifested  in  this  adaptation. 

A.  series  of  lessons  corresponding  to  the  last  should  be  given, 
thus: 

1.  Limbs  of  animals,  and  their  movements. 

2.  Localities  (general)  in  which  animals  are  found. 

3.  Breathing,  and  circulation  of  blood. 

4.  Form  in  which  the  young  first  appear. 

5.  Finally,  the  children  should  be  led  to  distinguish  verte- 
brated  animals  from  others,  and  to  put  them  into  the  four  great 
divisions : 

Mammals.  Birds.  Reptiles.  Fishes. 

The  teacher  can  proceed  in  the  same  way  with  invertebrated 
animals.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  the  later  courses  must  be- 
come less  full,  and  more  general,  than  the  earlier  ones. 

In  conclusion,  the  scholar  should  be  led  to  recognize  all  the 
groups  as  component  parts  of  the  one  great  system  of  animated 
nature.  See  Mrs.  Redfield's  "  Chart  of  the  Animal  Kingdom." 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS. 


DESIGNED    AS   THIRD    STEP   LESSONS. 

On  the  Nature  of  Plants. 

THE  teacher  should  be  prepared  with  an  object  for  the  lesson 
selected  from  each  grand  division  of  the  natural  kingdom ;  as,  a 
plant,  an  animal,  and  a  stone.  Call  upon  the  children  to  observe 
that  the  three  are  very  different.  Tell  them  to  find  out  something 
which  may  be  said  of  all  of  them,  but  which  could  not  be  said  of 
a  hat,  a  knife,  or  a  watch.  The  plant,  the  animal,  and  the  stone, 
were  made  as  they  are  by  God ;  man  did  not  make  them.  We 
call  them  natural*  To  which  of  the  three  objects  are  you  most 
like  ?  In  what  respect  do  you  and  the  plant  differ  from  the 
stone?  "What  will  some  day  happen  both  to  you  and  to  the 
plant,  which  never  can  happen  to  the  stone  ?  We  and  the  plant 
shall  die.  (See  that  the  children  understand,  that  when  we  speak 
of  death,  as  applied  to  plants,  we  mean  that  they  cease  to  live, 
and  then  decay.)  In  what,  then,  does  the  stone  differ  from  ani- 
mals and  plants  ?  The  stone  has  not  life.  What  can  you  say  of 
a  vegetable  ?  That  it  has  life.  What  do  living  things  need  to 
support  their  life  ?  Food.  Where  do  animals  take  in  their  food  ? 
By  what  organ  ?  By  the  mouth.  Where  do  vegetables  take  in 
their  food  ?  By  what  organ  ?  By  their  roots.  In  what,  then, 

*  It  is  net  expected  that  the  children  will  so  immediately  arrive  at  this  con- 
clusion, but  the  question  is  suggested  in  order  to  show  that  the  idea  is  to  be 
drawn  from  them,  their  minds  being  stimulated  and  directed  by  the  questioning 
of  the  teacher.  The  answers  are  inserted  in  order  to  indicate  the  point  to  which 
they  are  to  be  brought. 


360  LESSONS   ON   PLANTS. 

do  animals  and  vegetables  differ  from  stones  ?  Animals  and  vege- 
tables require  food  to  support  life  j  but  stones  have  no  life  which 
might  need  support.  In  what,  do  animals  differ  from  vegetables  ? 
Animals  take  in  their  food  by  the  mouth,  but  vegetables  by  the 
root.  What  other  benefits  do  these  derive  from  food  ?  Besides 
that  of  being  kept  alive  by  it,  it  makes  them  grow.  What  are 
animals  able  to  do,  that  cannot  be  done  by  vegetables  ?  What 
does  a  lion,  when  he  is  hungry  ?  What  a  hare,  when  pursued  by 
dogs  ?  What  do  you  in  the  playground  ?  For  whose  pleasure 
do  you  run  or  jump  ?  You  move  about  when  you  like.  Thus 
you  find  that  animals  can  move  at  pleasure  from  place  to  place. 
But  is  this  the  case  with  vegetables  ?  Suppose  a  plant  drooping 
for  water,  and  that  there  was  water  near,  could  it  get  at  it  ? 
Why  not  ?  Because  it  is  fixed  to  one  spot  in  the  earth. 

Tell  me  all  that  you  have  found  out  regarding  plants,  by  com- 
paring them  with  animals  and  stones.  Vegetables  are  made — ly 
God  ;*  we  therefore  call  them — natural ;  they  have — life  ;  their 
life  is  supported  by — -food  ;  this  they  take  in  at  their — roots  ;  food 
makes  them — grow  ;  they  are  fixed  to  one  spot  in — the  earth,  and 
cannot — move  about — as — they  please. 

There  should  be  a  simultaneous  repetition  of  this  by  all  the 
children,  to  fix  it  well  in  their  memories. 


The  Several  Parts  of  a  Plant. 

Commence  with  questions  on  the  preceding  lesson,  as  to  how 
a  plant  is  distinguished,  with  a  repetition  of  the  summary ;  then 
lead  the  children  to  find  out  the  principal  parts  of  a  plant.  These 
are,  the  root,  stems,  leaves,  blossom,  fruit  or  seed  vessel,  seeds. 
The  names  of  these  should  be  written  down,  and  frequently  simul- 
taneously repeated.  The  relative  position  of  the  different  parts, 
and  the  period  in  the  existence  of  the  plants  at  which  they  seve- 
rally appear,  might  form  the  subject  of  conversation. 

*  The  words  in  italics  are  to  be  given  by  the  children.     The  ellipsis  is  very 
useful  in  maintaining  attention  and  interest  in  the  summing  up  of  a  lesson. 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS.  361 

THE  ROOT. 

1.   The  Use  of  the  Root  to  the  Plant,  as  an  Organ  of  Nourishment. 

The  children  should  have  several  roots  and  pictures  of  roots  to 
examine.  They  should  be  led  to  observe  that  they  all  have  fibres, 
and  they  may  be  informed  that  these  fibres  are  the  true  roots,  and 
that  at  the  end  of  each  of  them  there  is  a  substance  like  sponge. 
If  questioned  as  to  the  properties  of  sponge,  and  as  to  the  use  of 
such  a  substance  to  the  plant,  they  may  be  led  to  discover  that 
these  spongioles,  as  they  are  called,  suck  up  from  the  earth,  as  so 
many  mouths,  the  moisture  which  nourishes  the  plant.  The  class 
may  be  led  to  observe  how  very  suitable  such  a  substance  is  for 
the  office  it  has  to  perform,  and  that,  while  God  has  withheld  from 
plants  the  power  of  moving  about  to  get  their  food,  He  has  pro- 
vided a  beautiful  compensation  by  furnishing  them  with  a  multi- 
tude of  mouths,  each  of  them  placed  at  the  end  of  a  long  fibre, 
and  that  these  stretch  out  in  all  directions.  The  observation  of 
this  fact,  and  the  proof  it  affords  of  the  providential  care  of  the 
Creator,  should  be  drawn  from  the  children.  They  may  also  find 
out  the  reason  why  gardeners,  when  they  transplant  roots,  are 
careful  not  to  injure  these  fibres.  If  all  the  fibres  of  the  root 
were  destroyed,  the  plant  must  die,  for  it  could  not  obtain  nourish- 
ment. 

2.   The  Use  of  the  Root  in  Fixing  the  Plant  in  the  Earth. 

The  children,  having  considered  the  root  as  an  organ  of  nour- 
ishment, should  next  consider  it  as  to  its  office  of  supporting  the 
plant  while  growing  in  the  earth.  Its  position  is  under  ground ; 
it  is  the  lowest  part  of  the  plant.  When  a  seed  begins  to  grow, 
it  sends  downward  a  root,  avoiding  light,  and  seeking  moisture. 
The  children  should  find  out  of  what  use  the  root  is  in  conse- 
quence of  its  position.  They  may  be  led  to  see  that  things  will 
not  stand  firmly,  if  the  top  be  not  well  balanced  by  the  base. 
How  is  a  plant  balanced  and  fixed  firmly  ?  The  roots  extend  in 
the  earth  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  upper  part.  The  roots 
of  large  trees  branch  out  in  all  directions,  and  spread  to  a  very 
16 


362  LESSONS   ON   PLANTS. 

great  distance. *  Draw  upon  the  board  a  tree  with  its  roots,  that 
the  children  may  perceive  that  the  wide-spreading  branches  of  the 
root  act  as  a  counterpoise  to  the  head,  and  even  extend  beyond  the 
boughs.  Lead  them  to  see  that  there  is  a  reason  why  the  mouth 
of  the  roots  should  stretch  beyond  the  foliage,  for  they  are  thus 
enabled  to  obtain  the  moisture  which  the  earth  receives  from  the 
rain,  which  does  not  penetrate  generally  through  the  foliage  near 
the  trunk.  How  wise  a  provision  for  the  plant  is  this  extension 
of  its  roots  !  Let  the  children  gather  from  this  where  a  large 
plant  should  be  watered  ;  not,  of  course,  just  at  the  stem,  but  at  a 
short  distance,  that  tho  water  may  reach  the  spongioles  of  the 
roots. 

3.  The  Use  of  the  Root  in  carrying  off  Waste  and  Injurious  Matter. 

The  plant  not  only  receives  suitably  nourishment,  but  also 
throws  off  waste  and  hurtful  matter  by  the  root ;  it  is  not,  there- 
fore, desirable  to  continue  sowing  the  same  seed  year  after  year  in 
the  same  spot,  because  the  soil  has  been  rendered  unfit  for  the 
growth  of  the  new  plants  by  the  matter  rejected  at  the  roots  of 
former  ones.  Some  different  kind  of  seed  should  be  chosen  for 
each  spot  under  cultivation,  for  it  has  been  found  by  experience, 
that  matter  which  one  kind  of  plant  rejects  as  injurious,  is  often 
suitable  for  the  food  of  plants  of  a  different  species. f  The  system 
of  agriculture  pursued  by  the  Israelites  might  here  be  mentioned, 
and  the  law  as  to  land  remaining  fallow  every  seventh  year  might 
be  read  to  the  class.  They  might  be  led  to  see  the  value  of  this 
law  to  this  people,  who  knew  neither  the  advantage  of  a  rotation 
of  crops,  nor  the  mode  of  enriching  the  earth  by  manures.  This 
law,  also,  conveyed  to  them  a  spiritual  lesson,  for  they  were  taught 
by  types  and  shadows. 

*  Teachers  may  give  great  interest  to  their  lessons  by  drawing  on  the  board 
before  the  children  diagrams  of  the  subject  of  them. 

t  This  fact  is  beyond  the  sphere  of  the  children's  observation ;  it  must,  there- 
fore, be  told  them ;  but  the  observation  on  the  consequences  may  be  drawn  from 
them,  as  a  reason  for  a  rotation  of  crops. 


LESSONS    ON    PLANTS.  363 

DIFFERENT    KINDS    OF    ROOTS. 

The  Globose  Root. 

The  children  should  be  shown  specimens  of  different  kinds  of 
roots,  and  pictures  of  others.  "What  have  all  roots  ?  What  is 
there  at  the  end  of  the  fibres  ?  What  is  the  use  of  the  spongy 
substance  ?  Why  do  plants  require  so  many  mouths  ?  Attention 
should  now  be  drawn  to  the  different  forms  of  roots.  First  give 
a  lesson  on  the  turnip,  for  instance.  The  children  will  observe  its 
two  principal  parts — the  fibres,  which  are  the  true  roots,  and  the 
thick  part,  like  a  globe,  from  which  the  root  is  called  the  globose 
root.  The  children  already  know  the  use  of  the  fibres  and  spon- 
gioles,  but  what  is  the  use  of  this  globe  ?  It  contains  a  store  of 
nourishment  for  the  plant,  by  means  of  which  it  brings  its  flower 
and  seed  to  perfection.  Where  are  turnips  cultivated  ?  Of  what 
use  are  they  ?  What  part  of  the  plant  is  eaten  ?  When  are  the 
roots  fit  for  food  ?  Before  the  store  of  nutritious  matter  which  the 
globe  contains  has  been  exhausted  in  maturing  the  flower  and 
seed.  All  farmers  and  gardeners  are  aware  of  this,  and  act  ac- 
cordingly. 

The  Tapering  Root. 

Let  the  children  examine  the  pictures  of  the  various  roots ; 
then  tell  them  to  select  a  root  of  a  very  different  shape  from  the 
turnip — the  carrot — and  let  them  describe  this  root,  its  parts  and 
shape  ;  and  when  it  has  become  familiar,  tell  them  its  name — the 
tapering  root.  They  will  at  once  see  why  it  is  so  named.  Which 
are  the  true  roots  ?  The  fibres  and  their  spongioles.  This  root, 
though  of  such  a  different  shape,  performs  the  same  important 
office  to  the  plant  as  the  globose  root.  The  children  can  tell  what 
this  is,  and  also  determine  when  carrots  should  be  dug  up.  Let 
them  give  a  list  of  the  tapering  roots  which  are  usually  cultivated, 
describing  the  peculiarities  of  each  of  them,  and  how  it  is  distin- 
guished from  others.  The  list  should  then  be  written  on  the 
board.  The  more  common  tapering  roots  are  the  carrot,  parsnip, 
radish,  beet,  mangel-wurzel,  and  horse  radish. 


364:  LESSONS   ON   PLANTS. 

Tuberous  Roots. 

Let  the  children  next  examine  the  roots  of  the  potato  plant 
and  of  the  dahlia,  which  are  similar  in  kind.  What  are  the  two 
principal  parts  ?  The  fibres  and  the  knobs.  How  do  these  roots 
differ  from  those  already  considered  ?  They  are  composed  of  sev- 
eral knobs  joined  together.  Yes ;  and  these  knobs  differ  from 
those  of  the  turnip  and  parsnip.  Find  out  in  what  respect  they 
differ.  Ask  the  children  if  they  know  in  what  way  farmers  and 
gardeners  plant  potatoes  ?  If  they  do  not,  they  should  be  shown 
the  little  specks  on  the  potatoes,  called  the  eyes.  These  are 
buds,  of  the  same  nature  as  the  buds  we  see  on  trees  in  the  spring, 
and  at  that  season  they  begin  to  sprout,  and  the  potato  in  this  state 
is  not  fit  for  food,  being  full  of  black  spots.  Question  the  children 
as  to  the  cause  of  these  black  spots,  and  why  potatoes  at  that 
season  are  not  good  to  eat.  They  ought  to  be  able  to  reply,  that 
the  nourishing  matter  which  made  the  root  a  wholesome  vege- 
table, is  expended  in  the  shoots.  The  gardener,  when  he  cuts  out 
the  eye  for  planting,*  takes  a  portion  of  the  potato  with  it,  which 
affords  nourishment  to  the  bud  till  it  has  formed  roots  to  obtain 
nourishment  for  itself.  The  children  will  now  be  able  to  find  out 
the  use  of  the  knob  (called  a  tuber)  to  the  plant,  and  in  what  state 
the  potato  is  best  for  food.  These  roots  are  called  tuberous  roots. 
Describe  a  tuberous  root.  The  dahlia  root  is  of  this  kind.  In  the 
spring  the  tubers  send  out  sprouts,  which  the  gardener  cuts  out, 
and  from  these  new  plants  are  raised.  What  a  beautiful  provision 
it  is  that  the  nourishing  matter  stored  up  for  plants  in  their  roots, 
should  be  so  pleasant  and  so  good  for  the  use  of  man  !  What  a 
blessing  to  the  poor  that  so  wholesome  a  vegetable  as  the  potato 
is  so  easily  cultivated,  and  that  it  multiplies  so  very  abundantly !  f 

*  A  teacher  would  greatly  increase  the  interest  of  the  lesson,  by  putting  into 
practice  what  is  here  described ;  planting  some  potatoes  and  dahlias,  allowing 
some  of  the  children  to  give  assistance,  and  then  observing  their  after  growth. 

f  These  observations  should  be  drawn  from  the  children.  It  is  the  art  of  the 
teacher  to  lead  them  to  draw  right  conclusions  and  moral  reflections  from  facts 
observed. 


LESSONS    ON    PLANTS.  365 

Bulbous  Roots. 

The  children  should  mention  the  different  roots  upon  which 
they  have  had  lessons,  describing  and  pointing  out  each  several  spe- 
cies.* Does  the  picture  contain  any  root  like  those  on  which  les- 
sons have  been  given  ?  Yes ;  the  onion.  Show  them  also  a 
tulip,  crocus,  and  snowdrop  root.  In  what  respect  do  they  seem 
like  the  turnip  ?  Though  they  appear  to  be  like  it,  they  are  really 
different ;  for  these  knobs  of  the  onion,  tulip,  &c.,  which  are  called 
bulbs,  contain  within  them  during  the  winter  season  the  young  f 
plant,  though  of  course  it  is  then  very  small.  These  bulbs  have 
been  compared  to  a  winter  cradle,  as  they  keep  the  plant  shut  up 
snug  and  warm  within  them  during  cold  weather.  This  root  is 
called  a  bulbous  root.  Describe  it. 

Fibrous  Roots. 

Let  the  children  say  what  they  observe  all  roots  to  have — 
fibres.  Let  them  give  examples  of  roots  that  have  fibres  only. 
Let  them  find  a  good  name  for  such  roots — fibrous  roots.  Some 
trees  have  a  large  tapering  root,  called  the  tap  root.  It  descends 
straight  into  the  earth,  and  from  it  proceed  great  branches,  termi- 
nating in  fibres.  A  root  of  this  description  should  be  drawn  on 
the  board,  and  the  children,  from  what  they  have  before  learned, 
will  be  able  to  say  why  such  a  root  is  necessary  for  a  tree. 

The  concluding  lesson  on  roots  should  be  recapitulatory.  The 
children  should  tell  the  names  of  the  different  roots  on  which  les- 
sons have  been  given,  and  these  should  be  written  on  the  board  ;| 
then  they  should  be  questioned  somewhat  as  follows  :  What  are  the 
two  principal  parts  of  the  globose  root  ?  Of  what  use  are  the 
fibres  ?  Of  what  use  to  the  plant  is  the  globular  part  ?  When 
is  it  best  for  food  ?  Describe  the  tapering  root.  What  are  its 
principal  parts  and  uses  ?  In  what  does  it  differ  from  the  globose 

*  In  the  first  lesson  the  roots  should  be  brought  in  and  shown  the  children ; 
but  in  the  subsequent  lessons,  when  they  are  only  referred  to,  the  teacher  should 
draw  them  on  the  board. 

t  In  the  spring  time,  if  a  root  of  a  tulip  be  cut  longitudinally  through  the 
middle,  the  plant  may  be  seen  within  the  bulb. 

\  The  questions  might  form  the  subject  of  a  home  exercise. 


366  LESSONS   ON    PLANTS. 

root  ?  Of  what  is  the  tuberous  root  formed  ?  What  is  the  use 
of  the  tubers  ?  How  are  plants  raised  from  them  ?  What  is  the 
most  common  of  these  roots  ?  What  is  a  bulbous  root  ?  What 
use  is  the  bulb  to  the  plant  ?  What  are  the  different  uses  of  roots 
to  plants  ?  How  are  they  fitted  for  their  different  uses  ?  When 
any  one  makes  an  instrument  well  fitted  to  perform  a  difficult 
work,  what  do  we  say  of  him  ?  And  if,  in  addition,  we  find  that 
he  has  made  it  for  the  use  and  benefit  of  others,  what  more  do  we 
say  of  him  ?  But  who  made  plants,  and  gave  them  different 
parts,  fitting  them  to  perform  different  offices,  to  contribute  to  the 
comfort  of  man?  What,  then,  must  we  acknowledge  God  to  be? 
Wise  and  kind.  What  does  the  Bible  tell  us  of  the  work  of 
God  ?  Do  you  remember  what  God  said  of  everything  when  first 
made  ?  "  Behold,  it  was  very  good." 

STEMS. 

The  children  should  be  shown  various  kinds  of  stems ;  as,  a 
piece  of  a  tree,  a  straw,  and  a  succulent  stem — that  of  a  geranium, 
for  instance.  Let  them  arrange  stems  under  three  heads,  describ- 
ing each,  and  finding  examples  of  it.  A  name  should  then  be 
given  by  which  they  may  distinguish  each  division,  and  these 
should  be  written  on  the  board. 

1.  FLESHY   OR   SOFT   STEMS,    as  in   herbaceous    plants   and 
annuals. 

2.  STRAW,  as  in  grains  and  grasses. 

3.  WOODY  STEMS,  as  in  trees  and  shrubs. 

Show  the  children  several  specimens  of  these  different  stems, 
and  encourage  them  to  bring  others,  and  to  say  to  which  of  the 
three  divisions  they  belong.  Draw  from  them  what  difference 
they  perceive  in  these  stems. 

THE  FLESHY  STEM  is  soft,  full  of  juice,  generally  of  a  green 
color,  and  'lies  down  on  the  ground  in  winter.  What  stems  of  this 
description  do  we  eat  ?  Celery,  rhubarb,  sea-kale.  Some  of  these 
stems  are  very  fibrous,  and  are  very  useful  on  this  account,  the 
fibres  being  manufactured  into  articles  of  dress  and  furniture. 
This  subject  should  be  enlarged  upon.  A  stem  of  flax  and  hemp 


LESSONS    ON   PLANTS. 

should  be  produced,  together  with  a  picture  of  the  plant,  the  un- 
manufactured fibre,  and  the  various  substances  made  from  it.  The 
children  should  find  out  what  qualities  in  the  fibre  make  it  thus 
useful. 

STRAW  is  stiff  and  hollow,  having  hard  joints  at  regular  dis- 
tances, which  give  it  strength,  so  that  while  it  bends  to  the  wind 
and  rises  again  by  its  elasticity,  it  is  also  able  to  support  the  ear. 
From  the  possession  of  these  properties  the  grain  is  continually 
brought  Binder  the  drying  influence  of  the  air,  and  the  ripening 
influence  of  the  sun.  Straw  is  used  for  bonnets,  baskets,  mats ; 
for  thatching,  litter  in  farmyards,  &c. 

The  sugar  cane  is  a  kind  of  straw,  full  of  a  sweet  juice,  which 
is  squeezed  out,  boiled,  and  made  into  sugar. 

WOODY  STEMS. — The  children  should  have  some  specimens  to 
examine,  that  they  may  describe  this  stem,  and  tell  its  parts.  It 
is  hard,  dry,  strong,  and  stiff;  its  parts  are  bark,  wood,  pith.* 
Let  them  describe  a  tree.  A  tree  has  an  upright  supporting  stem, 
called  a  trunk;  this  is  of  cylindrical  form,  tapering  upward  like  a 
pillar,  and  is  admirably  suited  for  supporting  a  heavy  weight. 
From  this  trunk  proceed  smaller  stems,  called  branches,  and  from 
these  others  still  smaller,  called  twigs,  upon  which  the  leaves  grow.* 
The  children  should  see  pictures  of  the  various  trees  and  their 
parts,  that  they  may  observe  the  different  manner  in  which  the 
branches  grow.  After  having  had  lessons  on  form,  they  would 
of  themselves  observe,  that  the  boughs  of  the  oak  form  nearly  a 
right  angle  with  the  trunk,  whilst  in  the  poplar  they  form  a  very 
acute  angle ;  and  they  will  perceive  that  it  is  this  which  causes 
the  great  difference  in  the  form  and  appearance  of  trees.  Let 
them  give  a  list  of  the  names  of  forest  trees,  to  be  written  on  the 
board,  describing  also  the  use  of  each ;  and  then  give  a  list  of 

*  It  is  needless  to  point  out  exactly  what  the  children  will  be  able  to  tell 
from  their  own  observation,  and  what  must  be  communicated :  well  practised 
teachers  will  find  but  little  in  tffese  lessons  which  they  will  not  be  able  to  get 
from  their  elder  division  of  pupils,  provided  they  bring  in  the  necessary  speci- 
mens, and  direct  rightly  their  attention,  commencing  with  questions  upon  what 
is  familiar  to  them.  Whatever  information  is  given  should  be  well  engrafted 
upon  what  was  previously  known,  and  the  latter  should  be  reproduced  by  ques- 
tions, answered  either  viva  voce,  or  at  home  on  paper. 


368  LESSONS   ON   PLANTS. 

trees  that  furnish  us  with  eatable  fruit.  Lead  them  to  observe  the 
comfortable  shade  afforded  by  trees  in  the  summer,  and  their  ex- 
ceeding beauty.  Let  them  next  describe  the  different  parts  of  the 
woody  stem. 

BARK. — Its  qualities  :  Bough,  hard,  and  fibrous,  fitted  to  act 
like  clothing  to  the  stem,  and  to  protect  it  from  the  effects  of  the 
weather.  Try  to  discover  what  the  children  know  of  the  uses  of 
different  kinds  of  bark.  Specimens  should  be  brought  before 
them,  that  they  may  point  out  the  difference  in  their  appearance. 
Show  them  some  tan — it  is  the  bark  of  the  oak.  They  know  its 
use — to  tan  leather.  "What  effect  has  it  upon  the  leather  ?  It 
draws  the  fibres  closer  together,  causing  the  leather  to  keep  out 
wet.  Some  barks  are  used  as  strengthening  medicines,  and  affect 
the  human  frame  something  in  the  same  way  that  tan  strengthens 
the  leather.  Cork  is  the  bark  of  a  peculiar  kind  of  oak.  A  piece 
of  the  bark  in  its  natural  state  should  be  produced,  and  the  quali- 
ties of  cork  elicited. 

WOOD. — Its  qualities  :  A  new  circle  is  formed  every  year  in 
the  wood  of  a  growing  tree ;  this  is  seen  by  the  rings ;  its  uses 
for  fuel,  for  buildings  of  all  kinds,  and  for  furniture ;  the  qualities 
{hat  fit  it  for  its  various  uses.*  Different  woods  used  for  differing 
purposes ;  as,  oak  for  ships,  posts,  &c.,  on  account  of  its  durability 
and  hardness ;  mahogany  for  furniture,  on  account  of  its  beautiful 
color ;  pine  for  housebuilding,  &c.,  on  account  of  its  lightness, 
softness,  cheapness,  and  abundance. 

PITH. — A  branch  of  the  alder  tree  should  be  shown  the  chil- 
dren, that  they  may  examine  it,  and  give  its  qualities.  Rushlights 
are  made  of  the  pith  of  rushes  dipped  in  tallow.  The  poor  people 
of  England  often  make  their  own  lights  by  dipping  pith  obtained 
from  reeds  in  tallow.  Sago,  of  which  nutritious  puddings  are 
made,  is  the  pith  of  a  palm  tree. 

CIRCULATION    OF* SAP. 

The  children  should  be  questioned  as  to  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  its  journey  from  the  heart  throughout  the  body  and  lungs, 

*  It  is  to  be  recollected  that  these  lessons  arc  only  hints  for  the  assistance 
of  teachers. 


LESSONS    ON    PLANTS.  369 

supporting  life.  They  may  then  be  told  that  plants  also  have  a 
fluid  which  in  a  similar  manner  flows  through  them,  supporting 
and  nourishing  the  life  of  every  part.  The  root  absorbs  moisture 
from  the  ground ;  this  ascends  into  the  plant,  and  reaching  the 
leaves,  undergoes  a  change,  becoming  suitable  food  for  the  plant ; 
it  then  descends  again,  this  fluid  supplying  nourishment  to  every 
part  in  its  course.  It  is  called  sap. 

In  addition  to  food  for  the  plant,  juices,  which  vary  in  their 
nature  in  different  vegetables,  are  produced  from  the  sap,  some  of 
them  very  useful  to  man.  The  children  should  be  questioned 
whether  they  ever  saw  juice  oozing  out  of  a  tree  ?  They  may 
have  seen  this  in  fruit  trees,  or  in  the  oozing  of  turpentine  out  of 
deal.  The  chief  of  these  vegetable  juices  are  gum,  resin,  vege- 
table milks,  acids,  oils,  tar,  turpentine,  and  water. 

GUMS. — Some  gum,  soft  from  the  tree,  and  some  gum  arabic, 
should  be  shown  to  the  children,  and  they  should  say  all  they 
know  of  gum,  and  the  trees  which  yield  it.  How  does  it  appear 
when  oozing  out  ?  What  effect  has  the  air  upon  it  ?  What 
qualities  distinguish  it  ?  Its  adhesiveness ;  its  solubility  in  water ; 
its  use  as  a  cement. 

RESINS  are  vegetable  products,  which  ooze  out  of  pines,  firs, 
&c.  The  more  common  resins  are  pitch,  tar,  turpentine.  The 
children  should  see  them,  and  describe  their  qualities  and  uses. 
Resins  are  distinguished  from  gums  by  dissolving  in  spirit  of  wine, 
but  not  in  water,  as  the  gums  do. 

FRANKINCENSE — mentioned  in  Scripture,  and  used  as  an  in- 
cense, a  type  of  that  intercession  of  Christ  which  makes  our 
prayers  acceptable  to  God — is  an  aromatic  resin. 

BALM  OF  GILEAD,  also  mentioned  in  the  Bible,*  and  cele- 
brated for  its  healing  properties,  is  another  resin. 

OILS  are  also  vegetable  liquids,  peculiar  to  some  plants.  The 
perfume  sent  forth  by  various  plants  is  caused  by  volatile  oils. 
These,  when  pressed  out  of  the  plants  containing  them,  afford  us 
fragrant  scents.  The  oils  in  common  use  are  chiefly  obtained  from 

*  The  teacher  should  refer  to  the  Scriptures,  in  which  these  substances  are 
spoken  of. 

10* 


370  LESSONS    ON    PLANTS. 

seeds,  in  which  they  exist  as  nourishment  for  the  tender  plant, 
when  it  first  begins  to  shoot  forth.  A  great  deal  of  oil  is  obtained 
from  nuts,  and  much  also  from  the  seed  of  flax  ;  the  latter  is  called 
linseed  oil.  The  oil  we  use  in  food  is  pressed  out  of  the  fruit  of 
the  olive.  Lead  the  children  to  observe  how  all  nature  contributes 
good  things  to  promote  the  comfort  and  pleasure  of  man.  It  is 
our  duty  to  receive  all  these  as  God's  gifts. 

The  children  should  have  some  oil  to  examine.  They  should 
find  out  those  qualities  which  distinguish  it  from  other  substances, 
and  make  it  so  useful ;  no  information  being  given  till  all  they 
know  or  can  discover  has  been  drawn  from  them.  The  mind  hav- 
ing been  thus  brought  into  an  active,  inquiring  state,  they  will  be 
interested  in  hearing  anything  new  concerning  any  object  which 
may  be  the  subject  of  instruction.  Lessons  should  always  con- 
clude with  a  summary,  in  which,  by  means  of  the  ellipsis,  the  chil- 
dren should  reproduce  all  they  have  heard. 

VEGETABLE  MILKS. — The  children  may  form  some  idea  of  the 
milky  substance  which  is  found  in  many  plants,  by  breaking  the 
stem  of  a  spurge.  In  this  plant  the  milk  is  of  a  caustic  nature, 
and  used  to  remove  warts.  The  milky  fluid  of  plants  is  often 
poisonous,  producing  fatal  sleep.  It  is  so  in  the  case  of  that  ob- 
tained from  the  poppy  and  lettuce,  from  which  are  prepared  opi- 
ates, which  are  used  in  small  doses  to  relieve  pain  and  to  cause 
sleep. 

INDIA  RUBBER  is  obtained  from  a  kind  of  laurel  tree.  When 
it  flows  out  of  the  tree  it  is  a  milky  fluid,  but  it  soon  becomes 
thick,  and  hardens  in  the  air ;  it  is  then  dried  over  the  smoke  of 
a  wood  fire,  which  makes  it  black.  The  children  should  name  the 
qualities  and  uses  of  India  rubber.  This  vegetable  substance  has 
of  late  years  been  extensively  used  in  rendering  cloths  impervious 
to  air  and  water,  and  also  in  the  formation  of  instruments  in  which 
elasticity  and  flexibility  are  required. 

There  is  a  liquid  that  flows  out  of  a  tree  in  America,  which 
very  much  resembles  the  milk  of  the  cow,  and  the  tree  is  called 
the  cow  tree.  It  is  a  great  blessing  to  the  people  of  that  country, 
for  it  grows  in  rocky,  dry,  and  barren  places,  which  would  not 


LESSONS   ON    PLANTS. 

produce  herbage  for  cattle.  During  many  months  no  rain  falls 
there,  but  the  tree  has  dry  leathery  leaves,  which  live  very  long 
without  any  moisture  ;  and  when  the  branches  look  quite  dry  and 
withered,  if  the  trunk  be  pierced,  there  will  flow  out  a  sweet, 
nourishing  milk ;  and  at  sunrise  the  natives  may  be  seen  hasten- 
ing with  their  bowls,  which  are  generally  the  shells  of  some  fruit, 
to  obtain  this  nice  vegetable  milk.  All  this  must  be  told  the  chil- 
dren ;  but  having  previously  seen  what  a  vegetable  milk  is,  they 
will  be  the  more  interested  in  the  subject.  The  use  to  be  made 
of  the  history  is  the  leading  them  to  see  how  beautifully  God  pro- 
vides for  His  creatures,  and  how  exactly  He  adapts  both  animals 
and  vegetables  to  the  countries  in  which  He  places  them.* 

HONEY. — This  is  a  familiar  vegetable  juice.  The  children  well 
know  how  the  bee  obtains  it,  and  treasures  it  up  in  waxen  cells, 
and  they  will  be  able  to  tell  its  qualities.  A  reference  may  be 
made  to  the  promise  given  to  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness,  that 
the  land  which  God  would  give  them  was  to  be  a  land  flowing 
with  milk  and  honey.  They  may  be  led  to  see  that  this  involved 
its  being  a  land  rich  in  vegetation,  possessing  abundance  of  flow- 
ers for  the  bees,  and  herbage  for  the  cows,  to  make  both  honey 
and  milk  abundant.  "We  are  told  that  Palestine  abounded  in  these 
aromatic  flowers  which  produce  the  best  honey. 

THE  STINGING  POWER  of  such  plants  as  the  nettle,  resides  in 
a  poisonous  liquid  contained  in  a  little  bag  at  the  bottom  of  a  sharp 
hollow  bristle.  When  the  bristle  is  struck,  this  fluid  is  pressed  up 
through  it,  and  flows  out  through  it  into  any  wound  the  bristle 
may  have  made  in  the  skin,  causing  the  pain  and  irritation  of  the 
sting. 

The  children  should  now  name  the  peculiar  juices  of  plants 

*  These  facts  must  be  communicated  to  the  children,  but  the  reflection  should 
be  drawn  from  them.  They  should  be  trained  to  perceive  and  acknowledge  the 
goodness  of  the  Creator  in  his  works.  We  are  all  ready  enough  to  find  out  de- 
fects, and  to  express  discontent  at  blessings  withheld,  whilst  our  innumerable 
daily  mercies  are  received  as  a  matter  of  course,  without  a  thought.  What  we 
have  to  encourage  in  children,  is.  a  quick  perception  of  the  wisdom  and  good- 
ness manifested  in  the  creation  and  providence  of  God,  and  the  habit  of  grate- 
fully acknowledging  these ;  for  feeling  is  increased  by  expression,  and  it  is  also 
thus  communicated  to  others. 


372  LESSONS   ON    PLANTS. 

which  they  have  learned,  and,  by  the  help  of  questions,  recapitu- 
late the  lessons  on  this  subject.  They  may  also  be  reminded  that 
all  that  would  be  injurious  to  the  plant  is  separated  from  the  sap 
and  thrown  out  at  the  root,  and  that  this,  though  bad  for  the  plant 
producing  it,  may  not  be  so  for  another  ;  indeed,  in  some  in- 
stances, that  which  is  injurious  to  one  kind  of  vegetable,  is  bene- 
ficial to  another.  Thus  leguminous  or  podded  plants,  such  as 
vetches  and  tares,  prepare  the  soil  for  corn  and  grasses.  How 
this  variety  in  plants  shows  the  wisdom  and  goodness  of  our  Great 
Creator ! 

BUDS. 

A  variety  of  buds  should  be  placed  before  the  class,  the  chil- 
dren being  helped  to  describe  what  they  are.  They  are  little 
bodies  which  are  formed  on  the  surface  of  vegetables,  sometimes 
containing  a  future  shoot,  sometimes  leaves,  sometimes  flowers, 
and  in  some  cases  leaves  and  flowers  together.  They  preserve 
the  new  parts  of  the  plant  from  the  severities  of  winter,  and, 
therefore,  are  sometimes  called  winter  cradles. 

The  leaves  are  often  curiously  folded  within  the  bud,  where,  as 
the  children  may  discover  by  examination  of  each  on  the  outside, 
are  generally  hard  scales.  These  are  only  the  outer  leaves,  which, 
having  been  chilled  and  checked  in  their  growth,  become  stiff  and 
hard,  and  curve  inward,  thus  forming  scales  that  protect  the  inner 
leaves.  This  occurs  only  in  cold  climates,  where  such  protection 
is  necessary,  and  thus  a  simple  yet  beautiful  provision  is  given  the 
plant  for  self-preservation.  Besides  this,  the  young  leaves  are 
often  surrounded  within  the  bud  by  a  cottony  substance,  which 
resists  the  cold.  They  are  also  sometimes  covered  with  a  clammy 
varnish,  which  protects  them  from  the  rain,  as  is  the  case  in  those 
of  the  horse  chestnut.  In  what  position  are  buds  formed  ?  The 
children  may  discover  that  it  is  at  the  angle  formed  between  a  leaf 
stalk  and  a  stem.  The  reason  of  this  is,  that  here  the  sap,  when 
passing  from  the  leaves,  does  not  flow  so  easily.  It  is  stopped, 
and  a  little  accumulation  is  formed,  which  is  the  cause  of  a  bud 
being  produced.  This  takes  place  in  the  summer  and  autumn. 
In  spring  the  warmth  of  the  sun  causes  the  bud  to  expand,  and  to 


LESSONS    ON    PLANTS.  373 

draw  up  the  sap  from  the  parts  below,  which  are  again  supplied 
by  the  parts  still  lower,  and  thus  the  sap  in  the  plant  is  set  in  mo- 
tion, and  this  is  what  is  called  "the  flow  of  the  sap.  This  might  be 
made  clear  to  the  children  by  drawing  on  the  board  a  plant  with 
buds,  and  pointing  out  the  course  taken  by  the  sap. 

THE  USE  OF  BUDS. — They  are  not  only  useful  in  keeping  the 
future  shoots  alive  during  the  winter  season,  but  they  afford  also 
the  means  of  multiplying  plants.  Each  bud  is  a  complete  little 
plant  in  itself,  having  within  it  everything  necessary  for  the  exist- 
ence of  the  plant  that  springs  from  it,  together  with  the  power  of 
sustaining  life  under  favorable  circumstances.*  Gardeners  know 
this,  and  cutting  off  the  bud  from  one  plant,  they  place  it  in  a  cut 
upon  the  stem  of  another,  the  sap  of  which  flows  into  the  bud, 
causing  it  to  grow.  This  operation  is  called  budding.  Plants  are 
also  raised  by  laying  a  branch  under  ground,  that  the  buds  it  con- 
tains may  send  roots  downward  and  shoots  upward  ;  then,  when 
the  branch  is  cut  off  from  the  old  plant,  it  becomes  a  new  plant. 
It  is  from  this  power  of  life  in  the  buds  that  plants  can  be  raised 
from  slips.  Vegetables,  indeed,  are  full  of  buds,  and  this  is  a  most 
wise  provision  for  their  preservation.  They  cannot  defend  them- 
selves, or  flee  from  their  enemies  as  animals  can,  for  they  are  fixed 
to  one  spot.  How  has  God  made  up  for  this  ?  He  has  furnished 
them  with  a  multitude  of  buds,  each  of  which  is  capable  of  repro. 
ducing  life,  so  that  a  plant  may  be  cut  in  every  direction,  or 
stripped  of  all  its  branches,  and  yet,  if  any  bud  remain,  there  still 
is  left  a  source  of  life,  from  which  new  shoots  may  be  produced. 
When  a  shrub  has  been  cut  down  to  the  ground,  it  will  often 
spring  up  vigorously  the  year  following,  because  some  buds  have 
been  left  on  its  stump.  How  beautifully  has  the  all-wise  Creator 
suited  everything  to  the  situation  in  which  it  is  placed,  and  to  the 
work  it  has  to  perform  !  Each  leaf  and  each  bud  proclaims  His 
wisdom  and  goodness.  "When  we  see  His  wonders  of  creation, 
shall  we  not  praise  and  glorify  him  ?  Yes.  He  has  declared  that 

*  Some  of  these  facts  may  be  rather  difficult  for  the  children  to  understand  ; 
anything  that  may  prove  to  be  beyond  their  capacity  may  be  omitted  ;  but  it  is 
very  desirable  to  give  them  a  reason  for  the  common  operations  they  may  see 
practised  by  gardeners  and  farmers. 


374  LESSONS    ON    PLANTS. 

His  praise  shall  come  even  out  of  the  mouth  of  babes  and  suck- 
lings ! 

There  are  three  kinds  of  buds :  "those  which  produce  the  flower 
only,  others  that  produce  only  leaves  and  branches,  and  a  third 
description  which  develop  both  leaves  and  flowers.  A  good  gar- 
dener knows  how  to  promote  the  formation  of  the  flower  buds, 
which  afterward  produce  the  fruit.  When  the  sap  flows  through 
the  tree  rapidly,  it  forms  the  most  leaf  buds ;  but  when  it  flows 
more  slowly,  it  becomes  richer  and  thicker,  and  forms  flower  buds. 
By  training  the  branches  of  the  tree  horizontally,  the  gardener 
causes  the  sap  to  flow  more  slowly  than  it  would  do  were  they  up- 
right, and  thus  he  obtains  more  flower  buds,  and,  consequently, 
more  fruit. 

The  picture  of  the  garden  will  be  found  useful  in  explaining 
and  illustrating  these  and  other  occupations  of  the  gardener. 

LEAVES. 

The  children  should  examine  some  leaves,  and  find  out  the 
parts  of  a  leaf ;  as,  the  upper  and  under  surface,  the  leaf  stalk,  the 
limb  (that  is,  the  whole  expansion),  the  point  or  termination,  the 
edge,  the  mid-rib,  the  veins.  They  should  next  be  led  to  observe, 
from  some  well-selected  specimens,*  how  these  parts  are  charac- 
terized, and  in  what  they  differ  in  different  plants.  The  upper 
surface  of  the  leaf  is  generally  smooth  and  bright,  and  of  a  darker 
color  than  the  under  surface,  which  is  dull ;  the  middle  rib  is  fur- 
rowed or  grooved  at  the  upper  surface,  and  keeled  or  ridged  at  the 
under  surface.  The  course  of  the  veins  is  sometimes  direct  from 
the  leaf  stalk  to  the  termination ;  in  other  cases  they  form  quite  a 
net- work.  "Whenever  a  vein  pushes  out  very  strongly,  it  forces 
out  a  part  of  the  limb,  and  in  this  way  is  caused  the  variety  in  the 
form  of  leaves. f  All  this,  under  a  little  guidance,  may  be  discov- 
ered by  the  children  themselves.  The  edge  of  a  leaf  is  sometimes 

*  The  children's  interest  will  be  increased  if  they  are  encouraged  to  bring 
specimens  for  their  lesson. 

t  The  more  of  these  facts  the  children  discover  themselves,  the  greater  will 
be  their  pleasure  in  the  lesson ;  in  this  way  also  an  inquiring  habit  of  mind  will 
be  promoted. 


LESSONS   ON    PLANTS.  375 

quite  plain  or  entire,  sometimes  very  finely  toothed,  and  sometimes 
the  teeth  are  large  ;  sometimes  it  is  scallopped,  sometimes  jagged, 
sometimes  hairy.  The  shape  of  leaves  varies  greatly.  The  chil- 
dren should  determine,  as  nearly  as  they  can,  the  shape  of  differ- 
ent leaves. 

Leaves  are  curiously  arranged  on  the  stalks  which  bear  them. 
Each  of  them  has  generally  a  leaf  stalk,  but  sometimes  they  grow 
on  the  stem  without  this,  and  are  then  said  to  be  sessile,  or  sitting. 
Sometimes  they  sheathe  the  stem,  as  in  the  grasses ;  sometimes 
two  leaves  are  joined  together,  and  the  stem  pierces  through  the 
pair ;  sometimes  they  grow  in  opposite  pairs  on  the  stem,  some- 
times on  alternate  sides,  sometimes  scattered,  sometimes  they  sur- 
round the  stem  in  a  circle  or  whorl.  The  knowledge  of  these 
facts  is  of  very  minor  importance,  but  such  subjects  furnish  teach- 
ers with  the  means  of  calling  out  the  observation  of  their  pupils, 
and  of  encouraging  habits  that  tend  to  render  all  nature  interest- 
ing, thus  putting  the  mind  in  possession  of  cheap  and  improving 
pleasure. 

THE  USE  OF  LEAVES  TO  THE  PLANT. — Ask  the  children  what 
effect  exercise  in.  hot  weather  produces  upon  the  skin  ?  Plants 
also  perspire,  and  it  is  by  means  of  their  leaves  that  this  healthy 
operation  is  carried  on.  Plants  thus  lose  two  thirds  of  the  mois- 
ture absorbed  at  their  spongioles.  The  fluid  they  perspire  is  nearly 
pure  water ;  the  thicker  and  more  nourishing  portions  of  the  sap 
remain  in  the  plant.  Vegetables  perspire  the  most  in  the  sun- 
shine ;  it  is  on  this  account  that  gardeners  always  protect  newly 
transplanted  plants  from  the  rays  of  the  sun,  because,  as  the  roots 
are  not  at  such  a  time  in  a  state  to  suck  up  much  moisture,  it  is 
desirable  that  the  leaves  should  not  be  giving  off  much  fluid  ;  for 
if  the  plant  part  with  its  moisture  more  rapidly  than  it  is  able  to 
replenish  it,  it  will  wither  and  die.  The  children  will  be  able  to 
give  the  reason  for  this  when  they  are  told  tjie  fact. 

Leaves  perform  to  the  plant  the  same  office  which  the  lungs 
perform  for  animals ;  they  draw  in  that  particular  air  which  is 
good  for  their  support,  and  throw  off  that  which  is  waste  and  inju- 
rious. It  is  in  the  leaves  also  that  the  sap  is  made  fit  for  nourish- 


376  LKSSONS    ON    PLANTS. 

ing  the  plant ;  just  as  in  the  stomach,  food  is  rendered  suitable  for 
the  sustenance  of  animal  life. 

USE  OF  LEAVES  TO  MAN. — The  children  will  be  able  to  find 
out  much  on  this  subject.  It  is  the  leaves  that  make  trees  so  beau- 
tiful and  so  valuable  for  shade  and  protection  from  the  weather. 
Our  gracious  Creator  has  given  to  trees  such  differing  leaves  as 
adapt  them  to  different  climates.  On  mountains  where  the  snow 
is  constantly  falling,  grow  the  firs  and  pines,  the  clusters  of  whose 
needle-shaped  leaves  allow  the  snow  to  fall  between  them ;  for  the 
weight  of  the  snow  would  soon  break  down  boughs  that  were 
covered  with  broad  leaves.  Again,  Ceylon,  which  is  a  country  at 
one  season  deluged  with  rain,  and  at  another  parched  with  heat, 
has  a  tree  called  the  fan  palm,  a  single  leaf  of  which  is  sufficiently 
large  to  afford  shelter  for  twelve  or  fifteen  people. 

LEAVES  USEFUL  FOR  FOOD. — Many  kinds  of  leaves  are  good 
for  food,  as  those  of  the  cabbage,  spinach,  endive,  lettuce,  parsley, 
turnip,  mustard  and  cress,  &c.  The  leaves  of  the  tea  plant  pro- 
duce an  agreeable  drink ;  those  of  the  senna,  and  others,  are  used 
as  medicine.  Tobacco  and  snuff  are  formed  of  leaves.  Cattle 
feed  upon  grass,  clover,  turnip  leaves,  &c. 

THE     FLOWER.* 

Lesson  1. 

A  variety  of  flowers  being  produced,  the  teacher  takes  up  one 
of  them,  and  asks,  What  is  this?  It  is  a  flower.  A  perfect 
flower  has  four  principal  parts  ;  try  and  find  them  out.  "What  do 
you  observe  in  these  flowers  ?  The  teacher  holds  up  a  wall  flower 
and  a  primrose.  The  colored  leaves.  These  colored  leaves  of 
the  flower  form  what  is  called  the  corolla.  What  is  the  first  part 
of  the  flower  that  I  am  to  write  down  on  the  board?  The 
"  corolla." 

"What  else  do  you  see  as  I  hold  up  these  flowers?     Some 

*  The  two  following  lessons  on  the  flower  were  drawn  out  fully  at  the  request 
of  the  teacher,  and  may  serve  to  show  the  mode  in  which  it  is  intended  that  such 
instruction  should  be  given. 


LESSONS   ON   PLANTS.  377 

green  leaves  at  the  bottom  of  the  corolla.  Are  they  green  in  the 
wall  flower  ?  No.  "What  is  their  general  color  ?  They  are  most 
frequently  green.  Of  what  use  do  these  little  leaves  seem  to  be 
to  the  corolla  ?  They  hold  its  colored  leaves  together.  What 
vessel  do  you  think  these  leaves  at  all  like  ?  They  are  something 
like  a  cup.  Yes ;  that  part  of  the  flower  that  holds  the  blossom 
is  called  the  cup*  What  shall  I  now  write  under  the  word 
"corolla"?  "The  cup." 

Now  observe  what  I  do  to  this  flower,  and  tell  me.  You 
have  pulled  off  the  corolla  and  the  cup.  I  did  this  that  you  might 
see  what  was  within  them.  What  do  we  find  there  ?  A  little 
thing  in  the  middle,  with  a  round  ball  at  the  top.  That  little 
thread-like  thing  in  the  middle  is  called  the  pistil.  Repeat  this 
word  together.  What  shall  I  write  down  ?  "  The  pistil."  Now 
we  will  look  for  the  pistils  in  the  other  flowers.  Where  shall  I 
find  them  ?  In  the  middle,  within  the  blossom.  The  pistil  is  a 
very  important  part  of  the  flower.  We  will  talk  a  little  more 
about  it  some  other  time. 

Do  you  see  anything  besides  the  pistil  within  the  corolla? 
Yes  ;  several  little  things  like  threads  round  the  pistil.  These  are 
called  stamens.  Repeat  the  name  together.  Let  us  find  out  the 
stamens  in  the  other  flowers.  What  shall  I  write  on  the  board  ? 
"  Stamens." 

Of  how  many  parts  of  a  flower  are  the  names  now  written 
down  ?  Of  four  parts.  What  are  these  four  things  which  I  have 
written  on  the  board  ?  The  four  principal  parts  of  a  flower.  Re- 
peat them  over  together.  Name  each  part  as  I  touch  it.  You 
shall  tell  me  now  where  each  part  is  placed  in  the  flower  Where 
do  you  find  the  pistil  ?  Within  the  corolla,  in  the  middle  of  the 
flower.  Where  do  you  find  the  stamens  ?  Within  the  corolla, 
and  round  about  the  pistil.  Where  is  the  corolla  ?  It  surrounds 
the  stamens  and  pistil.  Yvliere  is  the  cup  ?  On  the  outside  of 
the  corolla,  at  the  bottom  of  it ;  the  corolla  rises  out  of  it. 

What  part  of  the  flower  seems  to  be  the  most  carefully  pro- 
tected ?  The  pistil.  How  is  the  pistil  protected  ?  By  having 
all  the  other  parts  of  the  flower  placed  around  it.  Why  is  it  so 

*  Calyx. 


378  LESSONS   ON    PLANTS. 

carefully  guarded  ?  You  said  that  it  was  a  very  important  part 
of  the  flower.  Can  you  tell  me  when  it  is  that  the  blossom  and 
cup  still  more  carefully  guard  the  pistil  and  stamens,  by  being 
folded  close  around  them  ?  When  the  flower  is  in  bud.  "When 
do  your  mothers  take  the  most  care  of  you,  and  are  most  afraid  of 
any  harm  coming  to  you  ?  When  we  are  little  babies.  Yes ; 
when  you  are  young  and  helpless,  then  your  mothers  take  the 
moat  care  of  you,  and  try  to  keep  you  from  all  harm ;  and  so 
when  the  pistil  and  stamens  are  very  young  and  tender,  they  are 
beautifully  covered  and  folded  up  within  the  corolla  and  cup. 
Look  at  this  bud.  See  how  nicely  the  leaves  are  folded  around 
the  pistil,  sheltering  it  from  cold  and  rain. 

Who  made  this  pretty  flower  ?  God.  Do  not  use  that  word 
lightly ;  think  of  what  you  are  saying,  and  speak  with  reverence. 
The  great  God,  who  made  the  world  we  live  in,  the  sun,  and  the 
moon,  and  the  stars,  made  also  this  little  flower ;  and  what  does 
the  examination  of  this  little  flower  teach  us  about  the  great  God  ? 
That  He  takes  care  of  that  which  He  makes.  And  what  does  the 
Bible  teach  us — if  He  takes  care  of  the  flowers,  what  will  He  do 
for  us  ?  Much  more  will  He  care  for  us.  Now  tell  me  what  you 
have  to-day  learned  about  a  flower  ?  We  have  learned  its  four 
principal  parts.  What  are  these  ?  The  corolla,  the  cup,  the  pis- 
til, and  the  stamens.  What  more  have  you  learned  ?  We  have 
seen  where  the  several  parts  are  placed.  What  did  you  learn 
from  the  consideration  of  the  flower  ?  That  God  takes  care  of  all 
His  works. 

Lesson  2. 

What  are  the  four  principal  parts  of  a  flower  ?  Where  is  each 
part  placed  ?  Each  of  these  principal  parts  of  a  flower  has  also 
some  smaller  parts  belonging  to  it.  Look  at  the  corolla  of  this 
wall  flower  ;  of  what  is  it  formed  ?  Of  leaves.  In  what  do  those 
parts  of  a  plant  which  are  generally  called  its  leaves  differ  from 
these  ?  They  are  generally  green,  and  are  larger  and  thicker  than 
these.  And  what  can  you  say  of  these  in  the  corolla  of  these 
flowers  ?  They  are  of  different  colors.  Where  are  green  leaves 
placed?  On  the  stems  of  plants.  Where  those  of  different 


LESSONS    ON    PLANTS.  379 

colors  ?  On  the  flower  itself.  These  leaves  that  form  the  corolla 
are  called  petals.  Write  the  word  on  the  board  under  the  names 
of  tl*e  other  parts. 

The  teacher  shows  the  children  several  flowers,  and  says,  Tell 
me  in  what  other  respect  these  petals  vary,  as  well  as  in  color. 
They  vary  in  shape.  Find  out  something  more  in  which  the 
corollas  vary,  besides  in  the  color  and  shape  of  the  petals.  They 
vary  in  the  number  of  their  petals.  How  many  petals  has  the 
wall  flower  ?  Four.  How  many  the  heart's-ease  ?  Five.  (The 
teacher  pulls  the  petals  off  one  by  one  to  show  the  number.) 
Now  observe  when  I  pull  off  the  corolla  of  the  primrose  or  that 
of  this  periwinkle.  These  flowers  have  each  but  one  petal.  The 
primrose  has  but  one  colored  leaf,  but  does  it  look  like  one  petal  ? 
No,  teacher ;  it  looks  as  if  several  petals  had  been  joined  together. 
Yes  ;  the  petals  are  so  joined  together  as  to  form  one. 

Then  you  find  that  a  corolla  may  consist  of — petals — that  are 
— -joined  together, — and  form  only — one  portion  ;  of — petals — that 
are — separate.  I  shall  be  pleased  with  any  one  who  will  bring 
me  to-morrow  a  corolla  with  its  petals  joined  together  into  one 
piece,  and  another  with  its  petals  separate.  In  what  respect  have 
you  found  out  that  a  corolla  may  vary  ?  In  the  color,  form,  and 
number  of  its  petals,  and  in  their  being  joined  together  or  separate. 

What  is  that  part  of  the  flower  which  is  outside  the  corolla  ? 
The  cup.  Of  what  is  the  cup  formed  ?  Of  small  leaves.  These 
little  leaves  you  may  call  leaflets*  of  the  cup.  Repeat  this  name 
together.  What  shall  I  write  down  as  another  part  of  a  flower  ? 
"  Leaflets  of  the  cup."  Where  shall  I  write  this  name  ?  Under  the 
word  "  petals."  What  is  the  general  color  of  the  leaflets  ?  They 
are  green.  Now  observe  these  cups,  and  you  will  find  out  in  them 
something  like  that  which  you  remarked  in  the  blossom.  In  some 
of  these  the  leaflets  are  joined  together,  in  others  they  are  sepa- 
rate. 

Tell  me  the  name  of  another  part  you  noticed  in  the  flower. 
The  pistil.  And  what  did  I  tell  you  was  a  very  important  part 
of  the  flower  ?  The  pistil.  Now  observe  its  parts  :  here  is  the 
large  pistil  of  a  tulip  ;  but  as,  perhaps,  you  will  scarcely  perceive 

*  Sepals. 


380  LESSONS   ON    PLANTS. 

the  different  parts,  I  will  draw  one  on  the  board.  How  many 
parts  do  you  observe  in  the  pistil  ?  Three.  "Which  are  these  ? 
There  is  something  at  the  top  of  it.  That  is  called  the  stigma. 
Repeat  the  word  together.  What  more  ?  A  kind  of  stalk.  You 
may  call  it  the  stem*  of  the  pistil.  What  is  the  other  part  ?  A 
thicker  part  at  the  bottom.  That  is  the  seed  vessel. f  Now  tell 
me  the  names  of  the  three  parts  of  the  pistil,  that  I  may  write 
them  also  on  the  board.  The  stigma,  the  stem,  the  seed  vessel. 
Now  can  you  guess  why  I  said  that  the  pistil  is  a  most  important 
part  of  the  flower  ?  Because  it  contains  the  seed  vessel.  Where 
do  we  learn  that  God  provided  for  the  continuance  of  plants,  by 
giving  to  each  of  them  its  own  seed  ?  In  the  first  chapter  of  the 
Book  of  Genesis.  God  tells  you  this  in  His  Word,  and  by  ex- 
amining His  work  you  find  what  care  He  has  taken  to  preserve 
the  seed  vessel.  How  is  it  protected?  By  its  being  placed 
within  the  corolla  and  the  cup.  Which  is  the  more  delicate  of 
these  two  parts  ?  The  corolla.  And  where  is  the  corolla  placed  ? 
Within  the  cup.  All  the  works  of  our  Heavenly  Father,  from 
the  smallest  flower  up  to  man  himself,  display  His  wisdom  and 
goodness.  Now  repeat  the  names  of  the  several  parts  of  the 
pistil.  The  stigma,  the  stem,  the  seed  vessel. 

Which  of  the  principal  parts  of  the  flower  have  you  not  yet 
examined  ?  The  stamens.  Where  are  the  stamens  placed  ? 
Round  the  pistil.  Here  is  a  stamen  taken  out  of  this  tulip  ;  but 
see,  I  draw  it  on  the  board.  What  several  parts  do  you  observe 
in  this  ?  A  thick  part  at  the  top.  This  is  called  the  anther. 
Repeat  this  word  together.  The  anther  is  like  a  little  bag.  Did 
you  ever  notice,  that  when  you  shake  a  flower,  something  comes 
out  of  it  ?  Yes  ;  some  yellow  dust.  This  dust  or  powder,  which  is 
very  often  yellow,  comes  out  of  these  little  bags  ;  it  is  called  pollen. 
Repeat  this  word.  What  is  the  pollen  ?  It  is  a  kind  of  yellow 
dust.  Where  is  it  found  ?  Upon  the  anther.  The  use  of  this 
pollen  is  to  perfect  and  nourish  the  seeds  ;  as  it  falls  from  the 
anthers,  it  is  caught  upon  the  stigma  of  the  pistils,  which  is  always 
a  little  sticky,  and  porous  like  a  sponge.  The  children  should  try 
and  find  out  the  reason  for  its  being  sticky,  and  also  for  its  being 
*  Style.  f  Germ,  or  Ovary. 


LESSONS   ON    PLANTS.  381 

porous.  But  there  is  another  part  of  the  stamen  you  have  not 
mentioned  ;  what  is  this  ?  The  stem.  What,  then,  are  the  three 
parts  of  a  stamen  ?  The  anther,  the  pollen,  and  the  stem. 

Now  you  shall  repeat  all  you  know  about  a  flower.  How 
many  principal  parts  has  a  flower,  and  what  are  they  called  ? 
Tiiere  are  four  principal  parts  of  a  flower,  called  severally  the 
corolla,  the  cup,  the  pistil,  the  stamens.  How  are  they  placed  ? 
The  cup  outside  everything,  the  corolla  within  the  cup,  the  pistil 
in  the  middle  of  the  flower,  and  the  stamens  round  about  the  pistil. 
Of  what  is  the  corolla  composed  ?  It  is  composed  of  petals. 
How  do  petals  differ  ?  They  differ  in  form,  color,  number,  and  in 
being  joined  or  separate.  Of  what  is  the  cup  formed  ?  Of  leaf- 
lets. What  did  you  learn  about  leaflets  ?  They  are  generally 
green,  and,  like  the  petals  forming  the  corolla,  are  sometimes 
united  and  sometimes  separate.  What  are  the  parts  of  the  pistil  ? 
The  stigma,  stem,  and  seed  vessel.  What  are  the  parts  of  the 
stamen  ?  The  anther,  the  pollen,  and  the  stem.  What  did  you 
learn  about  the  stamens  and  pistil  ?  That  the  pollen  falls  on  the 
stigma  of  the  pistil,  which  is  sticky  and  like  a  sponge,  and  the  use 
of  the  pollen  is  to  perfect  the  seeds.  What  did  you  learn  of  God 
from  examining  a  flower  ?  That  even  a  little  flower  shows  His 
wisdom  and  His  goodness. 

FRUIT. 

What  law  was  made  by  God  in  the  beginning  of  all  things,  to 
provide  for  the  reproduction  of  vegetation?  That  herbs  should 
yield  seed,  and  the  fruit  tree  fruit  after  his  kind,  whose  seed  is  in 
itself.  Each  plant,  by  the  law  of  God,  is  to  produce  its  own  seed, 
that  it  may  be  continued  on  the  earth,  and  the  seed  is  contained  in 
a  seed  vessel.  When  are  the  seed  vessel  and  its  seed  found  on  the 
plant  ?  After  the  flower  has  been  perfected,  and  lias  perished. 
It  is  by  means  of  the  flower  that  the  seed  is  brought  to  perfection. 
The  children  are  to  be  led  to  perceive,  that  when  the  different 
parts  of  the  flower  have  performed  their  work,  they  wither  and 
fall,  and  are  succeeded  by  the  seed  vessel'  and  seed.  The  former 
is  the  increased  germ  of  the  pistil ;  when  matured,  it  is  properly 


382  LESSOR    ON    PLANTS. 

called  the  fruit,  though  that  name  is  generally  confined  to  such 
seed  vessels  as  are  eaten.  The  children  should  be  shown  a  variety 
of  seed  vessels.  They  will  see  that  they  vary  much  in  different 
plants.  They  should  try  to  describe  them.  In  many  plants  the 
seed  vessel  is  nothing  more  than  a  dry  case  to  contain  the  seeds,  as 
in  the  poppy,  the  violet,  the  convolvulus.  In  the  pea  plant  it  is  a 
pod.  The  particular  pod  of  the  cruciform  flower  is  called  a  sillicle. 
The  drupe  is  a  fruit  or  seed  vessel,  formed  of  a  soft,  pulpy  sub- 
stance, which  incloses  a  nut  with  a  kernel,  as  the  cherry,  plum, 
peach,  &c.  The  nut  is  a  hard  shell  inclosing  a  kernel.  The  pome 
consists  of  a  fleshy  substance,  inclosing  a  core  containing  cells  in 
which  the  seeds,  called  pips,  are  placed ;  as,  the  apple,  pear,  &c. 
The  berry  contains  the  seed  inclosed  in  a  soft  pulpy  substance ;  as, 
the  currant,  the  gooseberry,  &c.  Sometimes  a  number  of  berries 
are  joined  together  to  form  the  fruit,  as  in  the  raspberry,  black- 
berry, &c.  The  cone  consists  of  hard  stiff  scales,  each  covering  a 
seed,  as  in  the  fir.  Let  the  children  name  all  the  fruits  that  are 
eaten. 

THE      SEED. 

"What  seems  to  be  the  most  important  work  a  plant  has  to 
accomplish  ?  To  bring  its  seed  to  perfection.  Let  the  children 
try  to  find  out  the  means  taken  to  accomplish  this.  The  richest 
sap  goes  to  the  production  of  the  blossom.  The  parts  of  the  blos- 
som that  form  the  seed  are  beautifully  protected  ;  the  seed  is  in- 
closed in  a  case ;  the  pulp  of  the  fruit  is  for  the  nourishment  of 
the  seed,  as  well  as  for  its  protection.  There  are  many  beautiful 
contrivances  for  scattering  seed  over  the  face  of  the  earth,  in  all 
of  which  the  careful  providence  of  the  Almighty  is  manifested. 
The  children  will  be  able  to  recollect  instances  of  this  in  the  dan- 
delion, groundsel,  and  thistle.  The  down  that  surrounds  these 
seeds  acts  like  wings,  and  the  wind  wafts  them  over  the  fields ; 
they  also  adhere  to  the  shaggy  clothing  of  sheep,  and  other  ani- 
mals, and  are  carried  to  other  spots  by  them ;  and  also  by  birds, 
and  even  by  insects.  Though  these  plants  are  considered  only  as 
weeds,  they  form  the  food  of  many  birds  and  quadrupeds,  and 
when  they  decay  they  prepare  the  earth  for  more  useful  vegeta- 


LESSONS   ON   PLANTS.  383 

tion.  The  seeds  of  some  trees  are  furnished  with  a  thin  scale,  and 
the  wind  easily  wafts  them  here  and  there.  Everything  in  crea- 
tion manifests  the  contriving  wisdom  of  the  Almighty,  and  His 
care  for  all  His  creatures.  What  should  this  teach  us?  To 
praise  Him,  and  to  trust  in  Him.  The  children  should  name  all 
the  seeds  that  are  useful  to  man.  The  growth  of  the  seed.  What 
part  has  man  in  making  it  grow  ?  He  prepares  the  earth,  and 
puts  in  the  seed.  What  more  does  it  need  ?  Warmth  and  mois- 
ture. Who  alone  can  send  these  ?  Whose  blessing,  then,  should 
we  seek  when  we  sow  our  seeds  ?  Whom  should  we  thank,  if 
they  yield  a  plentiful  supply  ?  The  seed,  when  it  is  placed  in  the 
ground,  begins  to  swell  and  decay ;  it  then  sprouts,  and  its  own 
decaying  matter  at  first  feeds  the  young  shoot ;  this  sends  a  root 
downward  and  a  stem  upward.  Through  the  porous  earth  it  re- 
ceives the  air  and  moisture  it  requires,  and  is  kept  from  the  light, 
which  would  prevent  its  growth. 

In  all  the  above  lessons,  the  parts  spoken  of  should  invariably 
be  presented  to  the  class. 

It  would  be  desirable  that  the  children  should  learn  to  distin- 
guish a  few  of  the  principal  families  of  plants ;  as,  the  corns,  peas, 
the  cruciform,  rosaceous,  liliaceous  flowers,  and  others,  which 
should  be  taken  up  in  the  next  grade  or  Step. 


MOEAL   INSTRUCTION. 


THE  axiom  enunciated  by  Pestalozzi  as  the  basis  of  his  sys- 
tem, is,  that  "  education  has  to  deal  with  the  heart,  the  head,  and 
the  hand ; "  and  therefore,  to  be  complete,  it  must  be  moral,  intel- 
lectual, and  physical.  He  wisely  gives  the  heart  the  first  place ; 
the  wise  Solomon  also  says,  a  Out  of  it  are  the  issues  of  life." 

All  moral  instruction  must  be  founded  on  the  truths  of  the 
Gospel. 

In  the  First  Step,  the  teacher  seeks  to  awaken  the  moral 
sense  ;  to  lead  the  child  to  distinguish  right  from  wrong ;  to  make 
moral  impressions,  thus  preparing  for  religious  impressions.  . 

In  the  Second  Step,  the  child  learns  to  distinguish,  appreciate, 
and  name  moral  qualities. 

In  the  Third  Step,  the  child  is  led  to' consider  moral  conduct, 
and  to  distinguish  moral  character.  He  continues  to  observe  moral 
qualities,  not  as  isolated,  but  as  constituting  character. 

In  the  Fourth  Step,  the  child  proceeds  to  consider  the  relations 
of  moral  qualities,  the  basis  on  which  moral  conduct  ought  to  rest ; 
its  results.  In  short,  he  commences  the  study  of  moral  principles. 

FIRST    STEP. 

MORAL     IMPRESSIONS. 

1.  Sketch  on  Habits  of  Order. 

I. — Bring  before  the  children  several  objects ;  as,  a  cup,  sau- 
cer, spoon,  chair,  tray  and  snuffers,  candle  and  candlestick. 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION. FIRST   STEP.  385 

Let  a  child  arrange  them  properly  ;  i.  e.,  the  cup  in  the  saucer, 
the  spoon  in  the  saucer  toward  the  right  hand,  the  chair  against 
the  wall,  the  candle  in  the  candlestick,  and  the  snuffers  in  the 
tray. 

Show  them,  that  if  the  cup,  spoon,  &c.,  were  placed  on  the 
table  instead  of  in  the  saucer,  the  table  would  not  look  tidy. 
Show  them  how  disorderly  it  is  to  leave  chairs  in  the  middle  of 
the  room ;  also  how  untidy  it  appears,  if,  instead  of  finding  the 
candle  in  the  candlestick,  and  the  snuffers  in  the  tray,  we  find 
them  on  the  table.  S.  K.  :  "  Things  used  in  the  house  are  to  be 
kept  in  their  places." 

Teacher  mentions  different  things;  as,  broom,  tea  kettle. 
Children  mention  their  places. 

II. — Exercise  the  children  in  folding  different  articles;  as, 
dusting  cloth,  papers.  Ask  what  they  do  with  their  clothes  when 
they  go  to  bed  ?  Some  children  drop  them  on  the  floor,  and  leave 
them  in  a  heap  ;  some  fold  them  up ;  others  smooth  them,  and 
hang  them  over  the  back  of  a  chair.  Children  say  what  ways 
are  wrong,  and  what  right ;  also  where  clothes  not  in  use  ought 
to  be  kept.  S.  R.  :  "  Clothes  not  worn  are  to  be  folded  up  and 
put  away."  Children  name  articles  they  can  fold. 

III. — Exercise  the  children  on  the  proper  way  of  sitting  in 
their  seats.  Lead  them  to  observe  how  much  nicer  they  look 
when  sitting  with  their  hands  folded,  each  child  behind  another, 
than  when  they  are  spread  over  the  seat  irregularly.  S.  R. : 
"  Children  to  sit  upright  and  evenly  in  their  seats." 

Children  show  what  is  meant  by  sitting  uprightly  ;  by  sitting 
evenly. 

Students  construct  sketch  on  "Habits  of  Obedience,"  as 
"  Order." 

2.  Sketch  on  a  Bird's  Nest,  and  Bird-nesting. 

Object  of  the  Lesson. — To  illustrate  the  cruelty  of  robbing  a 
nest. 

First,  exhibit  the  picture,  and  let  the  children  point  out  the 
17 


386  MORAL   INSTRUCTION. FIRST   STEP. 

various  objects  represented  in  it,  and  tell  the  name  of  each  of 
them. 

I.  The  Nest. — "What  is  it  ?     The  place  where  the  bird  lays 
her  eggs,  and  the  home  of  the  young  birds  when  they  are  hatched. 
"What  kind  of  a  home  is  it,  and  of  what  shape  ?     Why  is  it  hol» 
low,  and  why  so  soft  inside  ?     By  whom  is  it  made  ?     How  does 
the  bird  make  it ;  has  it  hands  ?     How  is  its  beak  fitted  for  mak- 
ing a  nest  ?     The  nest  is  made  of  moss,  hay,  pieces  of  wool, 
straw,  hair,  leaves,  feathers,  &c.     Why  is  it  not  built  of  stone,  or 
of  wood  ?     How  is  the  bird  able  to  make  its  nest  ?     It  is  taught 
by  God  how  to  build  it.     It  obtains  the  materials  for  the  nest  by 
flying  here  and  there  to  seek  them,  and  then  weaves  them  to- 
gether with  its  beak.     It  places  its  nest  between  the  branches  of 
a  tree,  or  in  a  hedge,  or  against  a  house,  or  sometimes  even  on 
the  ground. 

Tell  the  children  that  a  little  bird  once  built  its  nest  in  a  lofty 
tree,  and  laid  five  eggs  in  it.  When  the  eggs  were  hatched,  the 
young  birds  came  out  of  them.  At  first  they  had  no  feathers,  and 
were  very,  very  small.  The  old  bird  used  to  fly  away  to  get  them 
food,  and  when  she  returned,  she  found  them  all  with  their  mouths 
wide  open  to  receive  it.  Then  this  good  mother  used  to  cover 
her  little  ones  with  her  wings,  and  keep  them  warm.  One  day, 
while  she  had  gone  to  seek  a  meal  for  her  hungry  little  ones,  two 
boys,  who  were  seeking  for  birds'  nests,  came  to  the  tree  in  which 
this  nest  was,  and  soon  perceived  it ;  so  they  climbed  up  the  tree, 
and  just  as  one  of  them  had  seized  the  nest,  and  torn  it  from  its 
place,  the  poor  mother  bird  returned.  What  sorrow  must  she 
have  felt,  when  she  saw  her  little  ones  carried  away  by  cruel, 
thoughtless  boys,  who  did  not  leave  her  even  one  to  nurse  and 
watch  over  !  And  the  poor  little  birds,  taken  from  their  mother's 
tender  care,  what  will  become  of  them  ? 

II.  Application. — Question  the  class  as  to  the  conduct  of  the 
boys.     What  did  they  do?     What  was  there  in  their  conduct 
that  was  wrong  ?     What  disposition  did  they  manifest  ?     If  any 
child  should  ever  feel  tempted  to  take  a  bird's  nest,  what  should 
such  an  one  remember  ? 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION. — FIRST   STEP.  387 

Students  construct  a  sketch  on  "  Saving  Crumbs,  and  Feeding 
Birds,"  as  "  Bird's  Nest,  and  Bird-nesting." 

3.  Hatter  of  a  Sketch  on  Behavior  in  Different  Places  and  Cir- 
cumstances. 

I. — Children  are  sometimes  in  schoolroom,  sometimes  in  play- 
ground, at  home,  at  church,  and  sometimes  in  the  streets. 

II. — At  school,  it  is  right  to  sit  still  and  pay  attention  to  what 
the  teacher  says,  or  to  speak  when  questioned ;  to  put  out  the 
hand  before  answering ;  to  keep  one's  own  place.  It  is  wrong  to 
play,  to  talk  to  each  other,  to  eat  apples,  &c.,  to  be  in  any  way 
inattentive. 

III. — In  the  playground  it  is  right  to  have  a  good  game ;  also 
to  go  immediately  into  the  schoolroom  the  moment  the  bell  rings. 
It  is  wrong  to  push  another  down,  or  to  keep  the  swing  all  the 
time,  when  others  want  it. 

IV. — It  is  right  to  be  very  quiet,  to  kneel  during  prayer ;  to 
repeat  prayers,  and  to  sing  aloud ;  to  pay  attention  to  what  the 
clergyman  says ;  to  try  to  remember  something  of  what  they  hear. 
The  opposite  of  these  things  is  wrong. 

V. — At  home,  it  is  right  to  listen  to  parents,  and  elder  broth- 
ers and  sisters  ;  if  any  one  be  sick,  to  wait  on  her  (or  him),  and 
to  make  as  little  noise  as  possible ;  to  help  mother ;  to  fetch  a 
chair  for  father  when  he  comes  home  from  work.  The  opposite 
of  these  things  is  wrong.  It  is  wrong,  also,  to  keep  the  best  chair 
or  the  warmest  place  by  the  fire,  to  make  a  noise  in  bed,  &c.,  &c. 

VI. — In  the  streets,  it  is  right  to  go  straight  on  ;  it  is  wrong 
to  loiter,  to  throw  stones,  call  people  names,  or  shout  after  them. 

Students  construct  matter  of  sketch  on  "  The  Kindness  shown 
by  Parents,  Teachers,  and  Companions,  to  Children,"  as  sketch  on 
"  Behavior." 

4.  Sketch  on  Pictures/  "Saturday  Night." 

I.  Point  Examined. — Get  the  children  to  mention  what  they 
see  in  the  picture — several  people.  Their  number,  sex,  and  rela- 


388  MORAL   INSTRUCTION. FIRST   STEP. 

tionship — there  are  father,  mother,  and  four  children  ;  viz.,  a  little 
boy,  two  girls,  and  a  baby.  What  each  is  doing — the  mother  is 
nursing  the  baby ;  how  tenderly  she  holds  it ;  how  careful  she  is 
of  it.  Eefer  to  the  kindness  of  their  mothers  when  they  were 
babies.  The  elder  sister  is  washing  the  younger ;  in  what  man- 
ner she  would  do  this — kindly,  so  as  not  to  be  rough,  or  hurt  the 
little  one ;  neatly,  so  as  not  to  make  the  room  untidy.  Who  is 
coming  into  the  house  ?  "Who  runs  to  meet  him,  and  why  ? 
What  the  father  does  to  the  little  boy?  What  this  shows? 
How  the  girls  look?  These  children  love  their  father,  and  he 
loves  them.  What  the  father  has  been  doing  all  day,  and  the  day 
before,  and  all  the  week,  ever  since  Monday  morning  ?  But  now 
his  week's  work  is  done,  and  he  will  have  a  day's  rest.  On  what 
day  he  will  rest  ?  What  day  comes  before  Sunday  ?  This  pic- 
ture shows  what  people  do  on  Saturday  night,  to  be  ready  for  Sun- 
day. What  the  mother  has  prepared  for  the  father  (shown  by 
reference  to  the  two  cups  and  saucers  on  the  table).  She  will 
take  tea  with  him ;  she  has  waited  till  he  came  home.  What 
else  is  on  the  table  ?  What  on  the  fire  ?  What  in  front  of  the 
fire  ?  (the  cat.)  How  she  looks  ?  How  the  children  will  treat 
her  ?  Kefer  to  the  bundle  the  father  brings  in  with  him.  Chil- 
dren will  say  what  they  think  it  contains — food  for  their  dinner 
on  Sunday.  How  the  father  has  prepared  for  Sunday?  How 
the  mother  ?  Refer  to  the  appearance  of  the  room.  She  cleared 
it  up  before  she  sat  down  at  the  fireside.  How  the  children  are 
preparing — they  will  be  nice  and  clean  when  Sunday  comes. 
How  pleasant  it  will  be  when  they  have  their  clean  things  on, 
and  are  ready  for  church. 

II.  Application. — From  this,  try  to  impress  the  children  with 
a  conviction  that  no  work  should  be  done  on  Sunday  that  can  be 
helped ;  and  that  everything  that  can  be  done  on  Saturday  to  pro- 
vide for  Sunday,  ought  to  be  done.  Let  the  children  enumerate 
all  the  things  they  can  do  on  Saturday,  to  prepare  for  Sunday. 

Students  construct  sketch  on  "  Picture  of  Sunday  Morning," 
as  sketch  on  "  Saturday  Night." 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION. FIRST    STEP.  389 


5.    Sketch  on  Picture,  "  The  Blind  Girl" 

I. — Exercise  perception,  in  letting  the  children  describe  the 
picture.  How  many  persons  drawn?  In  what  alike?  Both 
girls.  How  they  differ  ?  One  is  older  than  the  other.  What 
the  elder  girl  is  doing  ?  Walking  on  a  narrow  piece  of  wood 
placed  across  a  stream.  Let  them  look  at  her  face ;  her  eyes ; 
they  will  see  she  is  blind.  What  the  little  girl  is  doing  ?  She 
takes  the  other's  hand,  and  guides.  What  would  almost  surely 
happen  to  the  elder  girl,  if  the  younger  did  not  guide  her  ? 

II. — Exercise  conception,  by  calling  out  one  of  the  children, 
bidding  him  shut  his  eyes,  and  walk  to  the  door,  &c.  Why  he 
could  not  go  directly  and  quickly  ?  Another  child  sent  with  closed 
eyes  to  some  other  place.  Let  them  all  shut  their  eyes,  and  by 
such  exercises  try  to  lead  them  to  conceive  of  the  nature  of  blind- 
ness. Lead  them  to  recount  things  they  could  not  see,  if  they 
became  blind — the  sun  and  moon,  the  green  fields,  the  beautiful 
flowers,  their  kind  mothers,  fathers,  sisters,  or  brothers.  Whether, 
in  such  a  case,  they  would  be  able  to  play,  and  run  about  as  they 
do  now  ?  If  they  did,  what  might  happen  to  them  ?  What  they 
would  want,  whenever  they  wished  to  go  out  ?  How  sad  to  be 
blind  !  Having  excited  their  feelings  of  sympathy  and  compas- 
sion, let  them  think  of  circumstances  under  which  they  can  help 
poor  blind  people ;  as,  when  they  are  crossing  a  street,  where 
they  might  be  run  over ;  or  going  along  a  bridge,  where  they 
might  fall  into  the  water.  Whom  would  .they  then  imitate  ?  (The 
little  girl  in  the  picture.)  Who  would  like  to  imitate  her? 
Whom  does  such  conduct  please  ? 

Students  in  training  construct  sketch  on  picture,  "  The  Little 
Pilferers,"  as  sketch  on  "  The  Blind  Girl." 

Plan.  I. — In  giving  a  lesson  on  a  picture,  it  is  necessary  first 
to  exercise  the  perceptive  faculties.  Let  the  children  note, 

1.  Objects — whether  persons  or  things. 

2.  Actions — what  each  person  is  doing,  &c. 

Children  to  determine  the  character  of  the  actions  delineated. 


390  MORAL   INSTRUCTION. — FIRST   STEP. 

II. — Then  deduce  the  story  from  the  observations  made,  in 
such  a  manner  as  will  excite  interest,  and  call  out  sympathy. 

III. — Apply  the  lesson  to  their  own  conduct  and  circum- 
stances. 

LIST    OF    SUBJECTS. 

1.  Duties  to  parents:    To  love  them;  to  do  all  they  desire; 
to  try  to  keep  in  mind  their  counsels  when  absent  from  them ;  to 
try  to  please  them ;  to  speak  and  act  properly  toward  them  ;  to 
pray  for  them,  &c. 

2.  Duties  to  teachers  :    These  are  to  a  great  extent  the  same 
as  those  to  parents,  with  the  additional  duty  of  attention  to  their 
instructions,  and  of  seeking  their  forgiveness  after  ill  behavior. 

3.  Duties  to  brothers  and  sisters.     Particular  acts  of  kindness 
to  schoolfellows  and  companions. 

4.  Duties  to  the  poor,  the  aged,  the  infirm,  the  blind,  &c.,  or 
to  those  whom  they  can  help  in  any  way  whatever. 

5.  The  duty  of  doing  as  they  would  be  done  by ;  this  called 
the  "  Golden  Rule." 

6.  The  duty  of  being  careful  to  avoid  injuring  the  property  of 
another. 

7.  The  duty  of  children  to  refrain  from  taking  for  their  own 
use  anything,  however  small  it  be,  that  is  not  clearly  their  own 
property. 

8.  That  of  avoiding  quarrelling  and  fighting. 

9.  The  duty  of  refraining  from  calling  ill  names,   and  from 
using  wicked  words. 

10.  That  of  being  ready  to  forgive  any  unkindness  done  to 
them  by  another. 

11.  The  duty  of  respect  to  superiors,  w*ith  conversation  as  to 
the  various  occasions  on  which  this  is  called  for,  and  the  mode  of 
evidencing  respect. 

12.  That  of  not  returning  evil  for  evil. 

13.  The  duty  of  avoiding  selfishness  and  greediness. 

14.  That  of  behaving  rightly  and  suitably  in  different  places, 
and  under  different  circumstances. 


MOttAL   INSTRUCTION. — SECOND    STEP.  3(Jl 

It  is  essential  to  right  moral  training,  that  the  instruction  bear- 
ing on  these  several  points  should  be  based  on  the  Scriptures ;  the 
"Word  of  God  being  ever  made  the  standard  by  which  to  estimate 
good  and  evil.* 


SECOND    STEP. 

MOKAL    QUALITIES. 

1.  Sketch  on  Industry.     (Watts'  Hymn,  "  The  Busy  Bee") 

Question  the  children  on  each  verse,  endeavoring  to  make 
them  feel  the  force  of  each  epithet ;  for  it  is  on  the  appropriate- 
ness of  such  expressions  that  one  of  the  chief  beauties  of  poetry 
depends. 

Verse  1  (read). — What  creature  is  here  spoken  of?  What  is 
a  bee  ?  Here  the  children  should  describe  it,  as.  to  its  color,  the 
form  of  its  body,  legs,  and  wings,  and  its  humming  noise.  What 
is  here  said  of  the  bee?  How  does  it  show  that  it  is  busy? 
What  are  the  hours  it  improves  said  to  be,  and  why  are  they  de- 
scribed as  shining?  When  does  the  bee  work?  What  is  its 
employment  all  the  day  ? 

Describe  the  honey.  Where  does  it  get  the  honey  ?  How 
are  the  flowers  here  described  ?  Why  does  the  bee  choose  the 
fresh-blown  flowers  ? 

What  is  the  character  here  given  of  the  bee  ?  It  is  active, 
industrious,  and  never  idle.  How  does  it  prove  itself  thus  indus- 
trious ?  What  instincts  does  it  show  in  thus  storing  up  honey  for 
after  use  ?  Those  of  prudence  and  forethought. 

After  such  questioning,  call  upon  some  of  the  children  to  re- 
late in  their  own  words  all  that  is  said  of  the  bee  in  this  verse, 
and  to  decide  what  those  good  qualities  are  of  which  it  is  an 
example. 

The  force  and  beauty  of  this  verse  consist  in  the  qualifying  epi- 
thets— u  the  little  lusy  bee" — "the  shining  hours" — "  the  opening 

*  A  set  of  twelve  prints,  suitable  for  this  step  of  Moral  Instruction,  may  be 
bought  at  the  publishers. 


392  MOKAL   INSTRUCTION. — SECOND    STEP. 

flowers,"  those  just  unfolding  themselves,  and  as  yet  unrifled  of 
their  sweets. 

By  such  questions  the  children  will  be  enabled  to  form  a  vivid 
conception  of  the  little  active  bee,  humming  as  it  gaily  flies  from 
flower  to  flower,  busily  collecting  sweet  honey  while  the  sun 
shines. 

Yerse  2. — "What  is  the  bee  here  spoken  of  as  doing,  in  addi- 
tion to  gathering  honey  ?  .  Of  what  does  she  make  her  cells  ? 
What  does  she  manifest  in  building  her  cell  ?  What  is  a  cell  ? 
What  does  she  do  with  the  wax?  What  does  she  show  in 
the  manner  in  which  she  spreads  the  wax  ?  What  two  qualities, 
both  of  them  necessary  to  a  good  workman,  does  she  display  in 
her  work  ?  How  does  she  work  ?  For  what  purpose  does  she 
labor  ?  How  is  the  food  described  ?  What  does  she  exhibit  in 
making  this  provision  for  future  wants  ? 

The  beauty  of  this  verse  consists  in  the  appropriateness  of  the 
epithefs,  skilfully,  neat,  hard,  sweet.  The  children  should  here 
describe  the  character  and  work  of  the  bee ;  as  active,  employ- 
ing every  bright  hour  in  collecting  honey ;  forming  its  cells  in 
regular  order  with  skill  and  neatness,  and  laboring  hard  to  fill 
them  with  suitable  provision.  The  children  may  be  asked  what 
those  points  are  in  which  they  may  imitate  the  bee  ?  They  should 
strive  to  be  as  skilful  and  neat  as  this  little  insect  is. 

Verse  3. — In  this  verse  some  good  little  child  is  supposed  to 
speak.  What  does  he  say  he  will  be  ?  In  what  kind  of  works 
will  he  be  busy  ?  What  will  he  then  imitate  ?  Who  will  tempt, 
if  we  are  idle  ?  What  will  he  tempt  us  to  do  ?  What  other 
fault  generally  accompanies  idleness  ?  The  children's  experience 
may  be  appealed  to  on  this  point. 

Verse  4. — How  should  little  children  employ  their  time  ? 
What  should  they  be  when  at  their  books  and  work  ?  What  is 
here  said  of  play  ?  What  advantage  do  the  young  gain  from 
play  ?  What  dispositions  should  children  manifest  when  at  their 
play  ?  To  whom  must  every  one  give  account  of  the  manner  in 
which  each  day  is  spent  ?  Of  what  should  this  make  us  careful  ? 

Students  in  training  construct  sketch  on  " Honesty,"  as  "In- 
dustry." 


MOliAL    IN8TKUCTIOX. SECOND   STEP.  393 

(Subject-Matter.)     "  The  Honest  Woodcutter.11 

(1)  A  man,  with  many  a  hearty  stroke, 
Was  cutting  down  an  ancient  oak, 
"When,  as  he  smote,  his  axe's  head 
Far  from  the  handle  sped, 

And,  to  the  woodman's  great  dismay, 
Into  the  river  found  its  way. 

(2)  "  Now  tell  me  why,"  the  rustic  cried, 
"  Thou  couldst  not  on  the  stick  abide  ? 
Thou  surely  mightst  have  stayed  with  me, 
At  least  till  I  had  felled  the  tree." 

(3)  Thus  did  the  man  his  thoughts  express, 
And  sat  him  down  in  great  distress ; 

(4)  But  had  not  long  reclined  himself, 
Before  appeared  a  sprightly  elf, 
Who  asked  "  the  reason  of  his  grief," 

(5)  And  said,  "  I'll  quickly  bring  relief." 
The  man  explained ;  the  sprite  withdrew, 
Intent  his  magic  power  to  show. 
Forthwith  he  dived  beneath  the  stream, 
Full  many  a  fathom,  to  redeem 

The  woodman's  hatchet.     (6)  But,  behold  ! 
He  found  one  made  of  solid  gold. 
"  Is  this  the  tool  you  lost  ?  "  said  he. 
"  Oh,  no  ;  that  ne'er  belonged  to  me," 
The  man  replied.     "Then,"  said  the  sprite, 
"  I'll  try  again  to  get  the  right." 
(7)  Again  he  plunged,  again  emerged, 
And  now  a  silver  hatchet  urged 
On  the  poor  rustic.     (8)  He,  though  lone, 
Too  honest  was  even  that  to  own. 
"  Well,"  said  the  fairy,  "  111  persist, 
Till  I  obtain  the  one  you've  missed." 
Again  withdrew,  again  returned — 
The  man  with  joy  his  axe  discerned. 

17* 


394:  MOEAL   INSTRUCTION. SECOND    STEP. 

(9)  Said  he,  "  Thou  art  a  friend  in  need  ; 
This  is  my  very  axe  indeed." 
"  Pray,  take  it,  then,"  the  elf  replied, 
And  gave  the  other  two  beside. 

2.  Sketch  on  Keeping  the  Sabbath. 

MATTER. 

I. 

Haste  !  put  your  playthings  all  away ; 
To-morrow  is  the  Sabbath  day ; 
Come,  bring  to  me  Noah's  ark, 
Your  pretty  tinkling  music  cart ; 
Because,  my  love,  you  must  not  play, 
But  holy  keep  the  Sabbath  day. 

ii. 

Bring  me  your  German  village,  please, 
With  all  its  houses,  gates,  and  trees ; 
Your  waxen  doll,  with  eyes  of  blue, 
And  all  her  tea  things,  bright  and  new ; 
Because,  my  love,  you  must  not  play, 
But  holy  keep  the  Sabbath  day. 

in. 

Now  bring  your  Sunday  pictures  down- 
King  David,  with  his  harp  and  crown ; 
Good  little  Samuel  on  his  knees, 
And  many  pleasant  scenes  like  these ; 
Because,  you  know,  you  must  not  play, 
But  learn  of  God  upon  His  day. 

IV. 

Here  is  your  hymn  book  ;  you  shall  learn 
A  verse,  and  some  sweet  kisses  earn ; 
Your  book  of  Bible  stories,  too, 
"Which  dear  mamma  will  teach  to  you. 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION. SECOND   STEP.  395 

I  think,  although  you  must  not  play, 
"We'll  have  a  happy  Sabbath  day. 


METHOD. 

1st  Stanza. — Read  by  paragraphs,  leading  the  children  to  see, 
(1)  the  particular  meaning  of  the  words ;  (2)  general  meaning  of 
the  poem. 

(a)  "  Haste,"  "  playthings,"  "  to-morrow,"  "  Noah's  ark," 
"  music  cart." 

(5)  Question  why  these  are  to  be  put  away  ?  Meaning  of 
Sabbath.  Who  appointed  it,  and  why  ?  Read  each  stanza  over 
after  explanation. 

2d  Stanza. — (1)  German  village  to  be  shown  the  children,  if 
possible  ;  if  not,  drawn  on  the  board.  u  "Waxen  doll,"  "  bright." 

(2)  "Why  the  playthings  are  given  to  some  one  else  to  keep  ? 

3d  Stanza.— (1)   "Harp,"  "crown,"  "  holy." 

(2)  Who  David  was  ?  What  he  did  with  his  harp  ?  Whom 
he  used  to  play  before  ?  What  he  was  when  a  boy  ?  when  a 
man  ?  What  he  wrote  ?  Why  pictured  with  a  crown  ?  Draw 
from  the  children  what  they  know  of  Samuel.  Why  pictured  on 
his  knees  ?  How  they  may  imitate  him  ?  Where  we  learn  of 
David  and  Samuel  ? 

4th  Stanza.— (1)   "Hymn  book,"  "earn." 

(2)  Why  mamma  should  read  a  Bible  story  out  of  a  book  ? 
Why  not  the  child  herself  ?  What  this  shows  about  her  ?  What 
sort  of  a  Sunday  such  a  child  will  spend,  with  mamma  reading, 
and  the  pretty  pictures  to  look  at?  Try  to  impress  the  children 
with  the  idea  of  the  peace  and  happiness  of  such  a  Sunday.  Let 
them  repeat  any  portion  of  God's  Word  which  shows  how  He 
would  have  His  day  kept.  Text :  "  Remember  the  Sabbath  day 
to  keep  it  holy." 

Students  in  training  construct  sketch  on  "  The  Little  Ship  on 
the  Waves,"  or  "Looking  to  Jesus  in  Difficulties  and  Dangers" 
(Hymns  and  Poetry),  as  sketch  on  "  The  Sabbath  Day." 


396  MURAL   INSTRUCTION. — SECOND    STEP. 

3.  Sketch  on  Reverence.     (The  Athenians  and  Spartans.) 

1.  Introduction. — Ask  the  children  to  name  any  nations  of 
•whom  they  have  heard  that  lived  a  great  while  ago.     If  they 
mention  the  Jews,  tell  them  that  there  were  others  of  whom  we 
have  no  Scriptural  account ;  among  these  were  some  people  who 
lived  in  Greece.     Point  out  the  country  on  the  map,  and  then  its 
relative  .position  with  respect  to  Palestine.     Explain  that  it  was 
divided  into  several  States.       One  of   these   States  was   called 
Athens.     The  people  who  lived  in  Athens  were  called  Athenians. 
They  were  lively  people,  fond  of  games  and  shows  of  all  sorts. 
Another  of  these  States  was  called  Sparta,  and  the  people  were 
called  Spartans.     They  differed  from  the  Athenians,  being  very 
plain  in  their  way  of  living,  and  plain  in  their  habits.     They  used 
to  take  their  meals  altogether  in  the  open  air,  that  no  one  might 
have  good  things  which  others  could  not  share. 

II.  Story  Told. — 1.  One  day  the  Athenians  were  going  to 
have  a  play  performed  at  their  principal  theatre.  All  the  seats 
were  soon  taken.  When  the  theatre  was  full,  an  old  man  came 
in,  and  looked  round  for  a  seat.  He  was  old  and  infirm ;  could 
not  stand  long.  (Picture  out  his  distress.)  He  looked  first  one 
way,  and  then  another.  There  were  several  young  men  seated. 
(What  they  should  have  done  ?)  At  length  the  old  man  saw  a 
party  of  young  Athenians  beckoning  to  him.  (What  we  mean 
when  we  beckon  ?)  He  tried  to  get  to  them,  but  had  to  climb 
over  seats,  and  push  through  crowds  ;  and  when  at  last  he  reached 
them,  they  sat  down,  and  instead  of  giving  him  the  seat  he  had 
expected,  took  up  all  the  room.  The  poor  old  man  was  still  left 
standing.  How  he  must  have  felt  ?  What  can  be  said  of  the 
young  people  ?  Who  they  were  ?  (Athenians.) 

2.  In  this  theatre  were  some  seats  fitted  up  for  strangers. 
These  were  filled  by  young  Spartans,  who,  when  they  saw  the 
behavior  of  the  Athenians,  were  much  displeased,  and  beckoned  to 
the  old  man  to  come  to  them.     When  he  was  near,  they  all  rose, 
and  received  him  with  the  greatest  respect.     The  Athenians,  see- 
ing this,  could  not  help  bursting  into  a  shout  of  applause.     (Mean- 


MOKAL   INSTRUCTION. SECOND    STEP.  397 

ing  of  "  applause.")  The  old  man  heard,  and  said,  "  The  Athe- 
nians know  what  is  right,  but  the  Spartans  practise  it." 

3.  Contrast  the  conduct  of  the  Athenians  and  Spartans.  "Who 
behaved  rightly  ?  In  what  respect  the  Athenians  were  wrong  ? 
in  what  right?  "What  feelings  actuated  the  Spartans?  What 
Bible  rule,  though  heathens,  they  fulfilled  ? 

III.  Application. — Get  from  the  children  various  ways  in 
which  they  can  show  honor  and  respect  toward  persons  who  are 
older  than  themselves  :  Giving  up  a  place ;  standing ;  bowing ; 
speaking  in  a  quiet  tone.  What  we  call  this  behavior  ?  Refer 
to  God's  approbation  at  seeing  the  young  honor  the  aged,  and  His 
displeasure  at  seeing  the  aged  treated  with  disrespect.  Text : 
Lev.  xix.  32. 

Students  in  training  construct  sketch  on  "Filial  Piety,"  or 
"  Self-devotion  of  the  Servant,"  as  sketch  on  "  Reverence." 

Subject-Matter  for  Filial  Piety.     (Chambers1  Moral  Class  Book.} 

Anecdote. — Etna  is  the  principal  volcano  in  Europe.  Hun- 
dreds of  years  ago,  an  unusually  violent  eruption  took  place. 
Burning  matter  poured  down  the  sides  of  the  mountains  in  vari- 
ous directions,  destroying  whole  villages.  The  air  was  thickened 
with  falling  cinders  and  ashes.  The  people  fled  for  their  lives, 
carrying  with  them  their  most  valuable  goods.  Amongst  these 
were  two  young  men,  named  Anapias  and  Amphinomus,  who 
bore  a  very  different  burden  on  their  backs.  They  carried  only 
their  aged  parents,  who  could  by  no  other  means  have  been  pre- 
served. The  conduct  of  these  youths  excited  great  admiration. 
It  chanced  that  they  took  a  way  which  the  burning  lava  did  not 
touch,  which  remained  verdant,  while  all  around  was  scorched  and 
barren.  The  people,  who,  though  very  ignorant,  were  possessed 
of  good  feelings,  believed  that  this  tract  had  been  preserved  by 
miracle,  and  ever  afterward  called  it  the  "  field  of  the  pious." 

Subject-Matter  for  Self-devotion.     (Chambers'  Moral  Class  Book.) 

Anecdote. — In  the  winter  of  1776,  Count  and  Countess  Podot- 
sky  were  travelling  in  the  Carpathian  mountains.  The  cold  was 


398  MORAL   INSTRUCTION. — SECOND    STEP. 

very  severe,  and  tlie  wolves  were  more  bold  and  savage  than 
usual.  These  came  down  in  hordes,  and  pursued  the  carriage. 
Of  two  servants,  one  had  been  sent  on  to  the  next  town  to  pro- 
cure post  horses.  The  other,  seeing  the  wolves  come  nearer  and 
nearer,  proposed  to  leave  his  horse  to  satisfy  them,  that  so  the 
travellers  might  gain  time  to  reach  the  town.  The  count  con- 
sented. The  servant  mounted  behind  the  carriage,  leaving  the 
horse,  which  was  seized  and  torn  into  a  thousand  pieces.  Mean- 
while, the  party  proceeded  with  all  possible  speed  toward  the 
town,  which  was  not  very  distant.  But  their  horses  were  tired, 
and  the  wolves,  with  appetites  sharpened  by  a  scanty  meal,  had 
almost  reached  the  carriage. 

In  this  extremity,  the  servant  said,  u  Provide  for  my  wife  and 
children ;  I  will  go  and  meet  the  wolves."  He  got  down,  and 
was  devoured.  "While  the  wolves  were  feasting  upon  him,  the 
count  and  countess  reached  the  town  in  safety. 


4.  Sketch  on  Faithfulness  to  Promises.     ("King  John  of  France"} 

I.  Story  Narrated. — The  relative  position  of  France  and  Eng- 
land, and  the  wars  between  King  Edward  III.  of  England,  and 
King  John  of  France,  to  be  spoken  of.  Mention  the  battles 
fought,  dwelling  especially  on  that  of  Poictiers ;  the  success  of  the 
English ;  defeat  of  the  French,  with  the  capture  of  their  king ; 
his  removal  to  England,  and  imprisonment.  Endeavor  to  make 
the  children  realize  the  sad  change  in  King  John's  condition : 
before,  a  king  over  a  large  country  and  a  great  people,  possessed 
of  riches  and  power,  surrounded  by  every  luxury ;  now,  deprived 
of  all — his  house  a  dungeon,  his  fare  that  of  a  prisoner.  What 
would  be  his  feelings  under  such  circumstances?  "What  his  grief? 
"What  his  great  desire  ?  Liberty.  His  proposal  to  King  Edward, 
and  the  conditions  upon  which  he  was  released.  His  return  to 
France  ;  the  effort  to  collect  the  money  fixed  upon  as  his  ransom  ; 
its  failure.  What  this  might  have  led  him  to  do  ?  What  he 
did?  His  return  to  England,  and  to  prison.  Why?  Let  the 
children  give  their  opinion  on  his  conduct^  and  learn  the  term  by 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION. — SECOND   6TP:P.  399 

which  it  is  expressed — faithfulness  to  promise.  What  is  there  to 
admire  in  the  conduct  of  King  John  ? 

II.  Application. — Do  you  ever  make  promises  ?  How  should 
they  be  regarded  ?  What  should  you  do  before  making  a  promise  ? 
In  what  way  should  you  act  when  a  promise  has  been  made  ? 
However  much  may  be  the  inconvenience,  whatever  trouble  it 
may  give,  still  a  promise  must  be  kept.  Why  ?  First,  and 
mainly,  because  God  requires  this  ;  secondly,  because  such  conduct 
will  give  satisfaction  and  peace  of  mind  in  the  end,  though  it  may 
produce  temporary  suffering,  as  it  did  in  the  case  of  King  John ; 
thirdly,  because  of  the  effect  such  conduct  will  have  on  others. 

As  the  lesson  proceeds,  the  principal  points  of  it  may  be  writ- 
ten on  the  board. 

Students  in  training  construct  sketch  on  " Candor,"  as  "Faith- 
fulness to  Promises?'  Subject-matter,  "  Story  of  George  Wash- 
ington and  the  Cherry  Tree." 

5.  Sketch  on  Patriotism.     ("Siege  of  Calais") 

I.  Story  Narrated. — Begin  by  referring  to  the  last  lesson. 
What  was  said  of  the  battles  fought  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  ? 
Point  out  the  importance  of  Calais  from  its  position :  it  was  like 
a  key  to  open  the  way  into  France  and  the  Netherlands  ;  it  was 
well  fortified,  surrounded  by  strong  walls.  Edward  encompassed 
the  city  with  his  brave  soldiers ;  none  of  the  people  of  Calais 
could  therefore  get  out  to  obtain  provisions.  When  they  had 
consumed  all  their  store,  what  must  follow  ?  Still  they  fought — 
still  they  resisted  Edward's  demand  that  they  should  yield  their 
city  into  his  hands.  At  last,  when  nothing  but  starvation  awaited 
them,  they  submitted.  But  Edward,  instead  of  admiring  their 
bravery  and  patriotism,  was  so  angry  at  their  long  resistance,  that 
he  demanded  the  lives  of  six  of  the  principal  inhabitants.  The 
suspense  and  anxiety  of  the  people  !  How  must  their  joy  and 
gratitude  have  been  mingled  with  deep  sorrow,  when  six  of  their 
greatest  men  freely  offered  themselves  to  save  the  lives  of  the 
rest  by  the  sacrifice  of  their  own ! 

What  virtue  did  these  men  show  ?     Of  what  qualities  do  they 


400  MORAL    INSTRUCTION. SECOND 

set  us  an  example  ?  They  held  not  their  lives  dear,  so  that  they 
might  save  their  poor  countrymen.  "What  would  you  say  of  such 
men  ?  They  were  generous,  and  loved  their  country.  Imagine 
these  brave,  generous  men,  brought  with  halters  round  their  necks 
before  the  angry  king,  who  was  so  determined  to  punish  them  for 
the  trouble  that  had  been  given  him.  0  how  sad  is  anger  !  Hap- 
pily, there  is  one  of  a  different  spirit  there — Edward's  wife,  the 
gentle  Queen  Philippa  ;  she  pleads  for  the  noble  sufferers.  "What 
feeling  led  her  to  do  this  ?  Compassion.  This  made  her  plead 
their  cause,  and  with  power.  She  succeeded.  And  how  do  you 
think  she  must  have  felt,  when  these  brave  warriors  were  set  free  ? 
She  felt  the  luxury  of  doing  good. 

II.  Application. — What  evil  dispositions  are  manifest  in  the 
circumstances  brought  forward  in  this  lesson  ?  Anger  and  revenge 
in  the  king.  What  good  dispositions  ?  Generosity  and  patriot- 
ism in  the  six  citizens ;  compassion  in  the  queen.  Which  of  these 
would  you  desire  to  imitate  ? 

Students  in  training  construct  sketch  on  "  The  Galley  Prisoner 
of  Toulouse "  (see  Cowdery's  "  Moral  Lessons,"  page  75),  as 
sketch  on  "  Siege  of  Calais." 

6.  Sketch  on  Gratitude.     ("  The  Lion  and  the  Mouse") 

Point. — To  develop  the  idea  of  gratitude. 

I.  Introduction. — Bring  before  the  children  a  picture  of  a  lion 
and  of  a  mouse,  and  lead  them  to  draw  a  comparison  between  the 
two  as  to  size,  strength,  and  habits.     The  peculiar  disposition  of 
each :  the  one  wild,  fierce,  strong ;    the  other  gentle,  timid,  and 
weak.     Speak  also  of  their  food,  and  the  manner  in  which  they 
obtain  it. 

II.  Fable  Related.— Bead  or  relate  the  fable  of  "The  Lion 
and  the  Mouse,"  and  help  the  children  to  realize  the  story.     The 
forest ;    the  thick,   shady  oak,  under  which  the  lion,  faint  with 
heat,  is  resting ;  the  little  insignificant  mice  running  over  the  back 
of  this  king  of  beasts ;  the  anger  of  the  lion  at  being  thus  dis- 
turbed ;  the  escape  of  all  the  mice  but  one ;  the  lion's  intention ; 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION. — SECOND   STEP.  401 

the  distress  and  supplication  of  the  mouse ;  effect  of  these  upon 
the  lion ;  the  feeling  thus  excited  in  the  mouse  toward  the  lion. 
"When  the  children  have  gained  the  clear  idea,  give  the  name  for 
this  feeling — gratitude. 

Continue  the  subject,  telling  the  children  the  danger  in  which 
the  lion  was  afterward  placed ;  his  voice  of  distress  heard  by  the 
mouse  ;  the  manner  in  which  the  mouse  proves  its  gratitude  ;  its 
readiness  to  repay  the  kindness  of  the  lion.  In  what  way  can  the 
mouse  help  the  lion  ?  Jn  one  way  only,  but  this  is  sufficient ;  he 
gnaws  the  net  with  his  hard,  sharp  teeth,  and  sets  the  lion  free. 

III.  Application. — What  lesson  may  be  learned  from  this 
fable  ?  That  we  should  be  grateful  for  kindness  shown  to  us, 
especially  if  we  have  deserved  otherwise.  That  none  are  so  small 
or  feeble  but  that  they  may  be  able,  in  some  way  or  other,  to 
return  a  kindness.  That  none  are  so  great  or  so  powerful,  but 
that  they  may  at  some  time  need  the  service  of  their  inferiors,  and 
be  helped  by  them.  Of  what  virtue  does  this  little  mouse  set  us 
an  example  ? 

Students  in  training  construct  sketch  on  "Affectation,"  'as 
"Gratitude,"  taking  for  subject-matter,  "Jackdaw  and  Pigeons." 
(See  "JEsop's  Fables.") 

7.  Sketch  on  Ingenuity  and  Perseverance.     ("  The  Crow  and  the 

Pitcher:') 

I.  Story  Related. — A  crow,  suffering  greatly  from  thirst,  per- 
ceived, with  much  joy,  a  pitcher  at  a  distance,  and  flew  to  it,  but 
found  very  little  water  in  it.  The  children  should  determine  what 
then  was  its  difficulty — its  beak  was  too  short  to  reach  the  water 
at  the  bottom.  The  crow,  however,  does  not  fly  away  in  despair. 
What  can  it  do  ?  Here  the  children  should  endeavor  to  think  of 
plans  by  which  the  crow  might  accomplish  its  object ;  their  prac- 
ticability may  be  canvassed.  First,  the  crow  endeavors  to  upset 
the  pitcher,  but  this  it  cannot  accomplish ;  next,  it  patiently  sets 
to  work  to  fill  the  pitcher  with  pebbles.  What  is  the  effect  of  its 
doing  this  ?  The  water  rises  to  the  top.  Why  ?  The  pebbles 
are  heavier  than  the  water ;  they  sink  to  the  bottom,  and 


402  MORAL    INSTRUCTION. SECOND    STEP. 

the  water  to  rise  to  the  top.  The  crow  is  rewarded  for  its  labor 
by  getting  a  draught  of  water,  of  which  it  stands  so  much  in 
need. 

II.  Application. — The  children  should  determine  the  merit  of 
the  crow.  What  was  its  conduct  ?  and  then,  how  they  can  imi- 
tate it  ?  When  they  have  some  work  to  accomplish  which  appears 
to  them  difficult,  they  must  not  say  they  cannot  do  it,  but  consider 
what  means  they  can  adopt.  If  the  first  plan  fails,  as  that  of  the 
crow  did,  try  another  ;  find  some  new  and  better  plan ;  persevere 
till  they  succeed.  Consider,  first,  what  to  do,  and  spare  no  pains 
to  succeed  in  what  they  feel  is  right  to  be  done.  Ingenuity  and 
perseverance  will  have  their  reward.  This  to  be  repeated,  and 
the  children  to' sing,  "  'Tis  a  lesson  we  should  heed." 

Students  in  training  construct  sketch  on  u  Discontent,"  subject- 
matter,  "The  Frogs  who  Wanted  a  King,"  as  sketch  on  "  Inge- 
nuity and  Perseverance."  (See  "  JEsop's  Fables.") 

8.  Sketch  on  Self -Reliance.      ("The  Lark  and  her  Young  Ones"} 

I.  Introduction. — Commence  by  asking  the  children  what  kind 
of  bird  the  lark  is,  and  showing  them  a  picture  of  it.     Its  habits  : 
building  its  nest  on  the  ground  in  a  corn  field,  and  soaring  over  it ; 
ascending  very  high  ;  singing  most  joyously. 

II.  Fable  Narrated. — A  lark  had  a  nest  of  young  birds  in  a 
wheat  field.    When  the  wheat  became  ripe,  they  were  still  unable 
to  fly.      What  was  likely  to  be   the  consequence?      The  men 
would  come  with  their  reapers,  and  the  poor  little  birds  would  be 
trampled  on  by  them,  or  they  might  even  be  cut  in  pieces  by 
the  scythes.      How  would  the  mother  bird  feel,  when  she  ex- 
pected that  the  farmer  would  commence  reaping  ?     She  told  her 
little  ones  to  listen  attentively  to  all  he  said,  and  to  tell  her  every 
word.     Whilst  she  was  away  procuring  them  food,  the  owner  of 
the  field  came  to  look  at  the  grain,  and  seeing  it  so  ripe,  told 
his  son  to  go  and  call  his  friends  and  neighbors  to  come  and  cut 
it  on  the  morrow.     The  young  birds  were  greatly  alarmed,  but 
the  old  one  thought  there  was  no  cause  for  fear.     Why  ?     If  the 
farmer  depended  upon  others  to  do  his  work,  it  would  not,  she 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION. SECOND   STEP.  403 

thought,  be  done.  She  gave  again  the  same  command  to  her 
young  ones ;  and  the  next  day  they  reported  that  they  heard  the 
farmer  tell  his  son  to  invite  his  cousins  to  come  and  cut  the  wheat. 
What  would  the  wise  old  bird  say  to  this  ?  No  cause  for  fear. 
"Why  ?  The  next  morning  the  birds  heard  the  farmer  say  to  his 
son,  "Since  neither  our  friends,  neighbors,  nor  cousins  will  do 
our  work  for  us,  go,  get  a  reaper,  that  we  may  do  it  ourselves." 
When  the  old  lark  heard  this,  she  said,  "  We  must  be  gone  with- 
out delay ;  for  when  a  man  undertakes  to  do  his  own  business, 
then  it  will  surely  be  done."  So  she  removed  her  little  ones,  and 
the  field  was  reaped. 

III.  Application. — Draw  from  the  children  the  lesson  which 
the  fable  enforces — that  if  we  wish  our  work  performed,  wre  must 
not  depend  upon  others  to  do  it,  but  set  about  it  ourselves.  Ques- 
tion them  as  to  what  disposition  it  is  which  leads  us  to  give  up 
our  proper  work  to  others. 

Students  in  training  construct  sketch  on  "  Mockery,"  subject- 
matter,  "The  Shepherd  Boy  and  Wolf,"  as  sketch  on  "Self- 
Eeliance."  (See  "  JSsop's  Fables.") 


A   LIST    OF    MORAL    QUALITIES,    AND    SUBJECTS   FOR    THEIR   ILLUS- 
TRATION.* 

Obedience    ....  The  Kechabites.     Jer.  xxxv. 

Disobedience     .     .     .  Absalom.     2  Samuel  xv. 

Kindness     ....  David  and  Mephibosheth. 

Respect Solomon  and  his  Mother.     1  Kings  ii. 

*  In  the  various  series  of  books  published  by  the  Educational  Societies,  many 
excellent  and  appropriate  stories  of  useful  tendency  will  be  found  ;  and  also  in 
the  "  Simple  Lessons  "  and  the  "  Moral  Class  Book,"  published  by  the  Messrs. 
Chambers,  of  Edinburgh.  But  teachers  should  be  prepared  to  supply  the  appeal 
to  religious  motive,  and  constant  reference  to  the  revealed  will  of  God  as  the  rule 
of  action,  in  which  most  of  these  are  defective.  "  A  Kiss  for  a  Blow,"  is  a  little 
work  written  in  an  excellent  spirit,  from  which  teachers  may  select  several  pieces. 
In  Mrs.  Tuckfield's  "Book  of  Proverbs  and  Maxims,"  and  also  in  her  "  Evening 
Readings,"  there  are  many  interesting  anecdotes,  written  in  a  Christian  spirit. 
Some  stories  may  likewise  be  selected  from  "  Evenings  at  Home ; "  but'the  same 
caution  is  necessary  here,  as  in  the  little  work  of  Chambers.  "  Aids  to  Gate- 


404:  MORAL    INSTRUCTION. THIRD    STEP. 

Generosity  ....  King  Alfred  and  the  Beggar. 

Covetousness     .     .     .  A_chan.    Joshua  vii.     Gehazi.    2  Kings  v. 

Cruelty Murder  of  the  Innocents. 

Envy Joseph  and  his  Brethren.     Gen.  xxxvii. 

Gratitude    ....  Fable  of  the  Lion  and  the  Mouse. 

Diligence     ....  Song  of  the  Busy  Bee. 

Perseverance     .     .     .  The  Fable  of  the  Crow  and  the  Pitcher. 
Story  of  King  Robert  Bruce  and  the  Spider. 

Faith The  Little  Girl  and  the  Beads.     Cecil. 

Honesty  ...          .  The  "Woodman  and  the.  Axe. 


FABLES. 


The  Vain  Jackdaw. 
The  Dove  and  the  Ant. 
The  Husbandman  and  his  Sons. 
The  Dog  and  the  Shadow. 


The  Tortoise  and  the  Hare. 
The  Wolf  and  the  Kid. 
The  Ant  and  the  Grasshopper. 
The  Dog  in  the  Manger. 


THIKD    STEP. 

MORAL      CHARACTER. 

1.    Sketch  on  the  Errand  Boy. 

HEADS. — I.  Duties.      II.  Qualifications.     III.  Making  appli- 
cation. 

I. — Eequire  the  children  to  define  the  work  of  an  errand  boy. 

1.  Taking  letters,  messages,  and  parcels. 

2.  Lighting  fires,  sweeping,  dusting,  cleaning  windows,  taking 
down  shutters,  &c. 

3.  Tending  the  store.     (W.  B.) 

II. — Draw  from  the  children,  that  whoever  enters  a  situation 

chetical  Teaching"  contains  a  number  of  stories  founded  on  right  principles, 
and  which  may  be  used  without  fear,  as  may  also  Cowdery's  "  Moral  Lessons." 

For  appropriate  hymns  and  pieces  of  poetry,  teachers  are  referred  to  the 
third  edition  of  "  Hymns  and  Poetry,"  published  by  the  Home  and  Colonial 
School  Society. 

There  is  a  selection  of  fables  published  by  the  Tract  Society,  which  is  cheap 
and  good. 


MOKAL   INSTRUCTION. — THIKD   STEP.  405 

must  possess  qualities  which  will  fit  him  for  it.  Tell  them  these 
qualities  which  fit  us  for  our  situations,  are  called  qualifications. 
Refer  to  what  is  written  on.  the  board.  "What  a  boy  must  have 
before  he  can  find  out  streets,  or  know  how  to  leave  a  parcel  at 
the  place  to  which  it  is  directed,  or  how  to  give  a  receipt.  A 
knowledge,  of  reading  and  writing.  (~W~.  B.)  Speak  of  the  ad- 
vantage of  going  to  school.  How  much  they  owe  their  parents 
and  teachers.  How  a  boy  should  listen  to  a  message  he  has  to 
deliver.  He  must  be  attentive.  (W.  B.)  Show,  by  example 
(anecdote),  how  necessary  it  is  to  give  the  exact  message,  to  pre- 
vent mistakes.  He  must  be  exact.  (W.  B.) 

What  plans  might  be  adopted  to  help  him  to  remember  what 
he  has  to  say  ?  After  listening  attentively,  to  repeat  it  over  to 
himself.  Refer  to  a  boy  doing  something  else  first,  when  told  to 
be  quick.  The  probable  consequence.  He  must  be  punctual. 
(W.  B.) 

Contrast  the  appearance  and  behavior  of  two  boys,  one  dirty 
and  idle,  the  other  tidy  and  quick.  "Which  boy  would  people 
wish  to  employ  ?  What  objections  would  they  make  to  the  dirty 
and  idle  boy  ?  He  would  be  likely  to  soil  what  he  had  to  carry, 
and  to  fail  to  bring  it  in  time.  The  errand  boy  must  be  clean  and 
industrious.  (W.  B.)  Refer  to  the  money  or  goods  he  may  have 
intrusted  to  his  care.  He  must  be  honest.  (W.  B.)  Children 
to  decide  on  the  way  he  should  speak  to  his  employer,  or  to 
his  employer's  customers.  He  must  be  obliging  and  respectful. 
(W.  B.) 

III. — Remind  the  children  that  some  of  them  may  be  errand 
boys,  or  girls.  Ask  what  situations  they  would  like  to  fill  ?  Let 
them  decide  whether  any  of  the  qualifications  written  on  the 
board  can  be  dispensed  with  in  the  situations  they  select.  Lead 
them  to  see  that  in  all  positions  these  qualities  are  needful.  Ask 
what  will  help  them  to  acquire  these  qualifications  ?  Try  to  in- 
spire them  with  a  wish  to  possess  these,  not  only  to  please  em- 
ployers, but  that  God  may  say  to  them,  "  Well  done,  good  and 
faithful  servant.'1  S.  R. :  "  Servants,  bB  obedient  to  your  mas- 
ters ;  not  with  eye  service." 


406  MORAL   INSTRUCTION. THIRD    STEP. 

Students  in  training  construct  sketch  on  "The  Factory  Girl," 
or  "  The  Kitchen  Girl,"  as  sketch  on  "  The  Errand  Boy." 

2.  Sketch  on  "  The  Fisherman:1 

I.  Introduction. — Ascertain  who  of  the  children  have  seen 
men  and  boys  fishing.  Question,  so  as  to  bring  out  the  particular 
mode  adopted ;  i.  e.,  How  many  fish  caught  at  a  time  ? 

II. — Tell  them  there  are  some  men  who  get  their  living  by 
fishing.  They  are  called  fishermen,  and  they  catch  fish  in  a  differ- 
ent place,  and  in  a  different  way,  from  those  last  spoken  of. 
"Where,  and  how  ?  Show  a  picture  of  the  net.  Children  say 
how  used.  Different  proportion  caught  by  net  and  line.  Lead 
children  to  contrast  and  calculate  this. 

1.  The  angler  fishes  for  amusement. 
The  fisherman  fishes  for  bread. 

2.  The  angler  fishes  with  a  line. 
The  fisherman  fishes  with  a  net. 

3.  The  angler  fishes  in  the  river. 
The  fisherman  fishes  in  the  sea. 

4.  The  angler  stands  on  shore. 

The  fisherman  goes  out  in  a  boat. 

III. — Question  as  to  the  different  kinds  of  fish  caught.  Her- 
ring, mackerel,  cod,  soles,  salmon,  &c.  (W.  B.)  Tell  at  what 
parts  of  the  coasts  the  most  common  fish  are  found.  Herring  and 
mackerel  come  in  shoals  at  certain  times  of  the  year.  "Who 
sends  them,  and  why?  The  salmon  is  caught  in  some  of  our 
rivers,  and  is  plentiful  off  the  coast  of  Scotland,  and  off  the  north 
coast  of  Ireland. 

IV. — Refer  them  to  the  waves  of  the  sea.  Height  to  which 
these  swell.  Picture  out  the  fisherman  in  his  little  boat,  in  the 
midst  of  the  waves.  "What  they  would  do  in  such  a  situation  ? 
The  fisherman  must  be  a  good  sailor.  (W.  B.)  What  often 
happens  at  sea  ?  Dreadful  storms.  Kind  of  man  he  must  be  to 
face  such— bold.  (W.  B.) 

Picture  again  the  uncomfortable  little  boat  in  which  he  has  to 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION. THIRD    STEP.  407 

sit.  How  often  he  gets  drenched  with  rain.  The  effect  this 
would  have  on  themselves.  The  fisherman  does  not  mind  it  at 
all ;  he  shakes  his  wet  jacket,  and  works  on.  People  who  can 
bear  such  hardships,  we  call  hardy.  (W.  B.) 

Tell  them  that  the  fisherman  carefully  examines  the  weather 
before  he  ventures  forth.  Of  what  use  this  is.  He  must  under- 
stand the  signs  of  the  weather.  ("W.  B.)  And  if  he  is  a  good 
man,  he  will  ask  God  to  give  him  His  blessing  and  protection  in 
his  daily  work. 

V.  Summary. — Children,  from  memory,  contrast  the  fisher- 
man with  the  angler.  Mention  different  kinds  of  fish  caught,  and 
where  found,  and  enumerate  the  qualifications  of  the  fisherman. 

Students  in  training  construct  sketch  on  "  The  Soldier,"  as 
sketch  on  u  The  Fisherman." 

3.  Sketch  on  "  Expedition  of  Sir  John  Franklin." 

I.  Introduction. — Let  the  children  name  any  countries  they 
know.    How  different  countries  have  been  found  out ;  as  America, 
Australia.     Bring  a  map  of  the  world,  and  let  the  children  find 
in  what  ways  they  would  get  to  Asia  by  ship  from  New  York. 
Either  round  Cape  Horn,  or  round  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Let  them  try  to  find  another  way  of  going  by  ship.  If  they 
fail,  point  out  to  them  the  northwest  passage.  Compare  this  route 
with  the  others  as  to  length,  to  find  the  advantage  of  going  by  it. 
Refer  to  the  climate,  to  show  the  disadvantage. 

Picture  out  the  Polar  Sea.  Immense  masses  of  ice ;  a  white  bear, 
perhaps,  on  a  peak  of  one  of  them  ;  another  mass  floating  toward 
the  ship.  The  intense  cold.  So  many  inconveniences  and  dan- 
gers were  there,  that  people  did  not  know  whether  they  could  go 
that  way  or  not.  Who  would  be  willing  to  try  ?  What  kind  of 
men  they  must  be  ? 

II.  Story  Told. — A  sailor,  called  Sir  John  Franklin,  was  asked 
to  go.     He  went,  taking  two  ships.     Why  two  ?     He  was  not 
expected  to  return  in  a  year.     Perhaps  there  would  be  much  ice 
in  the  winter,  and  he  would  have  to  wait  till  the  next  summer's 
sun  melted  some  of  it.     His  wife  hoped  to  see  him  back  in  two 


408  MOKAL   INSTRUCTION. THIED   STEP. 

years ;  at  most,  in  three.  Children  to  say  how  the  ship  must  be 
provided  for  so  long  a  journey.  The  ship  sailed.  One  year 
passed,  another,  and  another ;  still  the  people  were  not  afraid. 
Why  not  ?  Then  another  year  passed  away,  and  again  another. 
"What  people  would  think  now  ?  How  would  Lady  Franklin 
feel  ?  What  Sir  John  Franklin  and  his  crew  would  be  likely  to 
want  now  ?  They  were  kept  out  much  longer  than  they  ever 
expected.  What  could  be  done  for  them  ?  The  queen  of  England 
sent  other  ships,  with  plenty  of  food  and  clothes,  to  look  every- 
where for  them,  but  in  vain.  The  people,  too,  of  other  countries, 
sent  ships  to  try  and  find  them,  but  they  could  not.  At  last  all 
parties  said  they  must  give  up  the  search.  It  was  useless  to  send 
more  ships  and  men,  to  perish,  too,  in  the  icy  sea,  Could  Lady 
Franklin  give  up  ?  Could  she  rest,  and  not  know  whether  her 
husband  was  dead  or  alive  ?  She  sent  out  ship  after  ship,  till  she 
spent  so  much  money  that  she  was  only  able  to  send  one  more. 
This  went,  and  returned  to  tell  her  that  she  would  never  see  her 
husband  again.  He  was  dead.  He  was  taken  ill  in  the  ship,  and 
died. 

Would  children  like  to  know  what  became  of  the  ships,  and 
the  rest  of  the  men  ?  The  ice  crushed  the  ships ;  so  the  men  got  out, 
and  tried  to  walk  over  the  ice,  in  hopes  of  finding  some  other  ship. 
Of  all  those  that  were  sent,  they  met  none.  It  was  terribly  cold, 
and  they  had  no  shelter,  no  food,  save  what  they  could  carry ;  so 
they  perished  one  by  one.  Let  us  hope  those  poor  men  loved 
God,  and  are  now  with  Him,  safe  and  happy  forever. 

The  children  should  be  led  to  sympathize  with  the  courage  of 
Sir  John  Franklin  and  his  crew.  Who,  with  the  affectionate  per- 
severance of  his  wife  ? 

Students  in  training  construct  sketch  on  "  Dr.  Kane's  Arctic 
Expedition,"  as  sketch  on  "  Expedition  of  Sir  John  Franklin." 


4.  Sketch  on  "Henry  II.  and  his  Children" 
— To  show  the  consequence  of  filial  in 

I. — Character  of  Henry  II.  as  a  father. 


Point. — To  show  the  consequence  of  filial  ingratitude  and  dis- 
obedience. 


MORAL    INSTRUCTION. THIRD    STEP.  409 

II. — Conduct  of  Henry's  sons,  and  their  punishment. 
III. — Application. 

I. — Children  to  name  any  eminent  kings  of  England.*  Select 
Henry  II.  as  the  subject  of  the  lesson.  Refer  to  the  period  of  his 
reign ;  his  descent.  Give  the  names  of  his  queen  and  children. 
Describe  Henry's  conduct  as  a  father  during  the  childhood  of  his 
sons.  His  love  for  them.  How  parents  show  their  love  ?  How 
Henry  showed  his  love  ?  1.  By  his  indulgence  ;  the  readiness 
with  which  he  entered  into  their  sports.  2.  By  the  pains  he  took 
with  their  education,  getting  them  the  best  teachers,  that  they 
might  be  ignorant  of  nothing  befitting  their  station  to  know. 
3.  By  the  provision  he  made  for  them,  appointing  Henry  to  suc- 
ceed himself;  giving  Brittany  to  Geoffrey,  and  Guienne  and 
Aquitaine  to  Richard ;  making  John,  Lord  of  Ireland.  Chief 
points  put  on  the  board,  at  the  dictation  of  the  children.  Chil- 
dren to  say  what  so  kind  a  father  might  expect  his  children  to  be. 
To  decide,  from  the  fact  to  be  given,  whether  they  were  dutiful, 
affectionate,  grateful. 

II. — 1.  Consider  Prince  Henry  ;  his  ardent  wish  to  reign  be- 
fore his  father's  death  ;  his  disputes  with  his  brother  Richard ;  the 
part  the  king  took  in  the  affray ;  its  results ;  Prince  Henry's  ill- 
ness and  death  (the  ring)  ;  effects  of  this  on  the  king. 

2.  Prince  Geoffrey.     Narrate  briefly  his  career  and   fearful 
end. 

3.  Note  briefly  the  dissensions  between  Richard  and  John. 
The  distress  these  caused  the  king.     Henry's  death;   Richard's 
visit  to  the  tomb  of  his  father ;  his  bitter  repentance.     Picture  out 
the  scene  with  reference  to  Mrs.  Hemans's  poem  on  the  subject. 
His  career  as  king  of  England. 

4.  John,  king  of  England  ;  his  meanness  ;  cruelty  ;  tyranny  ; 
its  results ;  his  death.    Write  on  the  board,  at  children's  dictation, 
how  each  son  of  Henry  II.  died. 

III.  Application. — Children  to  say  to  what  the  mournful  fate  of 
Henry's  sons  may  be  traced.  What  caused  the  remorse  they  felt  ? 
Let  children  find  examples  of  disobedient  children  from  the  Bible, 

*  For  account  of  this,  see  "  Little  Arthur's  England." 
18 


410  MOKAL    INSTRUCTION. THIKD   STEP. 

and  refer  to  texts  which  speak  of  this  sin,  and  its  punishments. 
In  what  respects  they  may  be  guilty  of  the  same  faults?  "What 
children  must  expect  who  persevere  in  acting  thus  ?  In  disobey- 
ing their  earthly  parent,  they  sin  against  God,  and  God  signally 
punishes  such  rebellion  even  in  this  world.  Repeat  together  the 
Fifth  Commandment. 

Students  in  training  construct  sketch  on  anecdote,  "Messrs. 
Adams  and  Quincy"  (see  Cowdery's  "Moral  Lessons,"  page  197), 
as  sketch  on  "  Henry  II." 


5.  Sketch  on  " The  Gunpowder  Harvest" 

1.  Story  Told. — A  tribe  of  Indians  dwelt  near  the  Missouri 
Eiver,  in  North  America.     These  had  but  little  intercourse  with 
Europeans. 

Ideas  worked  out.  Point  out  the  locality  on  the  map.  De- 
scribe the  country — covered  with  forests.  The  people ;  their  com- 
plexion, dress,  mode  of  life — hunters.  Explain  European  and 
intercourse. 

2.  A  merchant  went  into  their  country ;  sold  them  muskets 
and  gunpowder,  taking  fur  as  an  exchange.     Whether  the  man 
would  be  likely  to  give  his  muskets  away  ?     What  he  wo.uld  ex- 
pect ?     What  the  Indians  would  be  able  to  give  ?     Why  they 
would  particularly  value   firearms  ?     Explain  merchant,   musket, 
gunpowder,  and  exchange. 

3.  After  a  time,  a  Frenchman  came  to  the  same  country  to 
sell  gunpowder.    The  Indians  had  plenty — would  not  buy.    What 
the  Frenchman  wanted?     How  the  fact  of  the  Indians  having 
gunpowder  affected  him  ? 

4.  He  told  them  gunpowder  was  a  seed,  &c.     What  seeds 
do  ?     Motive  of  the  lie  ?     The  sin  of  the  lie  ?     The  effect  of  the 
lie  ?     Try  to  make  the  children  sympathize  with  the  simplicity  of 
the  poor  Indians. 

5.  So  the  Indians  bought  the  gunpowder ;  sowed  it ;  placed 
a  guard  to  protect  the  field  from  wild  beasts ;  waited  for  the  har- 
vest.   What  they  expected  ?    Why  they  placed  a  guard  ?    When 


MORAL    INSTRUCTION. TRIED    STEP.  411 

they  would  find  out  the  cheat  ?     Lead  the  children  to  sympathize 
with  their  anxiety,  while  waiting  for  the  gunpowder  to  sprout. 

6.  Next  year  the  Frenchman,  who  did  not  choose  to  go  again 
himself,  sent  his  partner  to  the  Missouri,  with  many  things  to  ex- 
change for  furs.     "Why  he  did  not  go  ?     Make  the  children  under- 
stand he  was  afraid  to  meet  the  poor  men  he  had  wronged.    Show 
that  fear  is  a  consequence  of  guilt.     Explain  partner. 

7.  Somehow  the  Indians  found  out  that  these  goods  belonged 
to  the  man  who  had  cheated  them.     Straightway  they  gave  him 
a  hut,  in  which  all  his  goods  were  set  out.     When  this  was  done, 
they  helped  themselves,  &c. 

He  demanded  justice  from  the  chief,  and  was  promised  the 
skins  of  all  the  beasts  that  should  be  shot  with  the  produce  of  the 
gunpowder  harvest.  With  what  feelings  the  Frenchman  dis- 
played his  goods  ?  With  what  feelings  he  saw  them  disappear. 
Refer  again  to  the  manner  in  which  the  Indians  had  been  deprived 
of  their  property.  Refer  to  Exodus  xii.,  and  show  that  after  the 
Egyptians  had  made  the  Israelites  work  without  wages,  God 
bade  his  people  demand  return. 

Children  to  say  whether,  if  a  schoolfellow  tdbk  something  from 
them,  it  would  be  right  to  snatch  something  of  his  ?  What  they 
can  do  ?  Appeal  to  the  teacher.  What  a  man  who  is  robbed  in 
the  street  can  do  ?  Appeal  to  the  magistrate.  Show  the  differ- 
ences in  the  position  of  the  Indians.  There  was  no  one  to  whom 
they  could  go  for  redress  of  wrong ;  they  had  a  right  to  redress 
it  themselves.  Children  to  say  what  is  to  be  condemned  in  the 
conduct  of  the  Frenchman.  What  those  who  injure  others  must 
expect.  "  He  that  diggeth  a  pit,  shall  fall  therein."  Also  Luke 
vi.  38. 

Students  construct  sketch  on  the  "The  Moravian  Farmer" 
(Chambers's  u  Moral  Class  Book"),  as  sketch  on  "The  Gunpowder 
Harvest." 

6.  Sketch  on  "  The  Shepherd." 

I. — Duties,  and  mode  of  life. 
IT.— The  Shepherd  of  the  lost. 
III. — Character  of  a  good  shepherd. 


412  MORAL   INSTRUCTION. THIRD    STEP. 

I. — Children  say  if  they  have  ever  seen  a  flock  of  sheep. 
Where  ?  "What  the  sheep  were  doing  ?  Who  was  with  them, 
and  for  what  purpose  ?  The  shepherd  watches  the  sheep,  to  see 
that  they  do  not  lose  themselves,  and  that  no  one  steals  them. 
He  leads  them  to  water,  and  to  different  meadows  where  they 
can  find  fresh  grass.  What  he  has  to  do  every  evening  ?  Put 
them  into  a  fold.  Call  on  some  of  the  children  to  describe  this, 
and  on  others  to  tell  its  use.  What  he  does  every  summer,  when 
it  is  very  hot,  and  the  sheep  can  hardly  run  about  under  their 
heavy  woollen  coats  ?  He  takes  them,  one  at  a  time,  to  a  pond, 
and  washes  their  fleeces,  which  are  then  clipped  off.  Why  this 
is  clone  ?  With  what  instrument  ?  Whether  the  shepherd  can 
do  it  all  by  himself?  How  the  sheep  behave  ?  How  they  feel 
after  it  is  cut  off?  What  they  will  do  in  winter,  having  their 
wool  cut  off  in  the  summer  ?  What  happens  before  winter  ? 
Who  causes  this  to  happen  ?  What  the  shepherd  always  has  to 
help  him,  and  how  ?  What  we  can  say  of  his  dog  ? 

II. — Children  name  any  shepherds  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 
Tell  them  that  in  countries  the  Bible  speaks  of,  it  is  very  hot,  and 
there  is  little  rain.  What  difference  this  makes  to  the  sheep  ? 
So  the  shepherd  has  to  look  carefully  for  water  and  green  grass. 
Refer  to  the  fierce  wild  beasts  that  infest  these  countries.  When 
they  are  most  likely  to  come  out  of  their  dens  ?  How  to  secure 
the  flock  ?  Luke  ii. 

III. — Let  children  picture  a  lion,  first  in  ambush,  then  spring- 
ing on  one  of  the  flock.  What  the  lad  shepherd  would  do  ? 
What  the  good  ?  "  The  good  shepherd  giveth  his  life  for  the 
sheep."  Agaii},  picture  out  the  shepherd  during  a  hot  summer's  day, 
leading  his  flock  to  some  shady  place,  and  playing  a  tune  to  them, 
as  David  did.  Tell  them  that  David  made  songs  referring  to  this 
subject,  and  repeat  some  part  of  Psalm  xxiii.  Children  say  what 
kind  of  a  man  a  good  shepherd  must  be  :  patient,  tender,  strong, 
courageous.  Who  is  called  our  Shepherd  ?  What  he  calls  little 
children  who  love  him  ?  (his  lambs.)  Speak  of  his  patience  and 
tenderness  ;  of  the  safety  of  his  flock.  Would  not  each  child  like 
to  be  one  of  Christ's  lambs  ? 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION. — FOURTH   STEP.  413 

FOURTH     STEP. 

MOKAL   PRINCIPLES. INTRODUCTORY   TO    MORAL   PHILOSOPHY. 

1.  Sketch  on  the  Analogy  of  Spring  and  Childhood. 

I. — By  questions,  endeavor  to  draw  from  the  children  a  de- 
scription of  spring.  In  what  part  of  the  year  the  spring  comes  ? 
What  they  notice,  when  taking  a  walk  in  the  country  in  spring  ? 
Flowers  peeping  above  the  ground.  (Children  give  the  names  of 
some  early  flowers.)  Buds  sprouting  on  the  trees  ;  grass  looking 
fresh  and  green.  (W,.  B.)  Everything  is  growing.  Question 
as  to  the  things  done  in  spring.  Laborers  dig  the  ground ;  put 
seed  into  it ;  the  gardener  lays  out  his  beds  and  plants ;  birds 
build  their  nests ;  bees  collect  honey  from  the  early  flowers ;  every 
creature  is  cheerful,  and  busy  at  its  work.  (W.  B.)  All  are  pre- 
paring for  a  future  time. 

Refer  to  the  weather  in  spring.  How  the  air  feels  ?  "Warm, 
soft,  and  fresh.  How  the  sky  looks  ?  Bright,  though  with  some 
clouds  scattered  here  and  there.  Children  decide  on  the  general 
state  of  the  weather.  To  do  this,  let  them  compare  it  with  the 
dry  harvest  time,  the  rains  of  later  autumn,  and  the  frost  of  win- 
ter. In  spring,  the  weather  is  neither  hot  nor  cold,  neither  wet 
nor  dry ;  showers  are  common,  but  not  long.  (W.  B.)  Show- 
ers are  soon  followed  by  sunshine. 

II. — Children  read  what  is  written  on  the  board.  In  spring, 
everything  is  growing ;  all  things  are  preparing  for  a  future  time  ; 
showers  are  soon  followed  by  sunshine. 

Tell  them  that  wise  men  have  compared  spring-time  to  child- 
hood, and  help  them  to  trace  the  analogy  as  to  each  point. 

1.  They  are  growing.     Their  bodies  grow.     They  are  taller 
and  stronger  than  they  were.     (Refer  to  the  babies  at  home.) 
Their  minds  grow  ;  they  know  more  than  they  did.     Refer  to  the 
time  when  they  first  saw  them.      How  little  they  knew  then. 
What  now  ? 

2.  They  are  preparing  for  a  future  period.     As  the  laborer 
sows  the  grain  in  spring,  so  the  seed  of  instruction  is  sown  in 
youth.     Children  to  say  what  is  compared  to  the  soil?     What  to 


4:14:  MORAL   INSTRUCTION. FOURTH   STEP. 

the  seed  ?  What  happens,  if  the  seed  is  bad  ?  "What  will  come 
up,  if  no  seed  is  sown  ?  Dwell  on  this  point  until  the  analogy 
is  clearly  traced. 

3.  Showers  are  compared  to  tears,  sunshine  to  smiles.  Refer 
to  things  that  have  happened  to  trouble  them  during  the  week. 
Let  them  notice  how  soon  these  things  have  passed  over,  leaving 
them  as  happy  as  before.  The  sun  has  shone  out.  Close  the  les- 
son with  a  few  serious  words,  referring  to  the  duty  of  being  dili- 
gent and  attentive  in  youth.  Warn  them,  that  where  there  are 
no  blossoms  in  spring,  there  will  be  no  fruit  in  autumn. 

Students  in  training  construct  sketch  on  "  The  Analogy  of 
the  Course  of  a  Eiver  and  the  Course  of  Human  Life,"  as  sketch 
on  "Analogy  of  Spring  and  Childhood." 

A  course  of  lessons  on  Symbols,  Emblems,  &c.,  might  advan* 
tageously  be  given  here. 

LIST. 

Omniscience,  represented  by  an  Eye. 

Adoration,  "  a  Censer  containing  Incense. 

Welcome,  "  a  Hand  stretched  out. 

Friendship,  "  Clasped  Hands. 

Royal  Power,          "  a  Eod,  or  Sceptre. 

Military  Poiver,      "  anciently,  a  Horn ;  recently,  a  Sword. 

Immortality,  J 

Life,  "  a  Serpent. 

Health,  ) 

Eternity,  "  a  Circle  ;    often  a  Serpent,  with  its 

Tail  in  its  Mouth. 

Justice,  "  a  Balance. 

Hope,  "  an  Anchor.  '] 

Faith,  ) 

Sorrow,  V         "  a  Cross. 

Humiliation,  ) 

Victory,  "  a  Wreath. 

The  Trinity,  "  an  Equilateral  Triangle  enclosed  in  a 

Circle  of  Rays. 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION. FOURTH   STEP.  415 

The  two  succeeding  examples  are  not  sketches,  but  bond  fide 
reports  of  lessons  given  by  two  of  the  principal  teachers  in  the 
Home  and  Colonial  Model  Schools. 

1.  Report  of  Lesson  on  "The  Nightingale  and  Glowworm" 

1.  Point. — To  work  out  the  moral  lesson ;  i.  e.,  God  gives  to 
different  persons  different  talents  for  their  general  good. 

II.  Heads. — 1.  Introduction.     2.  Stanzas  read,  questioned  on, 
and  explained.     3.  Moral  lesson  and  application. 

III.  Plan  of  the  Lesson. — 1.  Lesson  introduced,  by  drawing 
from  the  children  such  points  in  natural  history  as  will  bear  on  the 
subject,     (a)  Account  of  the  nightingale,  and  its  habits.     (&)  Of 
the  glowworm,  and  its  habits. 

2.  Stanzas  read  in  separate  paragraphs.      (a)  Questions  put 
on  each,  to  bring  out  the  general  meaning.      Examples  :    What 
had  the  bird  been  doing  ?     "Why  was  he  hungry  in  the  evening  ? 
What  effect  was  the  glowworm's  argument  likely  to  have  on  the 
nightingale  ?     Whose  task  was  it  to  beautify  ?     Whose  to  cheer  ? 
(b)  Questions  put  on  the  meaning  of  the  more  difficult  words, 
which  the  children  were  allowed  to  explain,  either  by  definition 
or   by  synonym.      Words    explained :    Keen,   demands,  eagerly, 
hawthorn,  crop,  admire,  power,     (c)  Questions  put,  to  call  out  a 
sense  of  the  exact  appropriateness  of  certain  words,  and  their 
superiority  over  their  synonyms.      Children  led  to  see  that  no 
synonym  would  have  the  force  of  spied,  right  (as  an  adverb), 
Jiarangued,  minstrelsy,  warbled. 

3.  The  children,  being  told  that  this  is  a  fable,  and  not  a  mere 
narrative,  concluded  that  it  contained  a  moral  lesson.     To  help 
them  to  find  it,  teacher  bade  them  name  the  subjects  of  the  story, 
and  put  the  names  on  the  board.     Children  decided  that  these 
meant  different  people. 

What  the  nightingale  possessed,  and  what  the  glowworm  pos- 
sessed, discovered,  and  put  upon  the  board.  Children  decided  that 
these  meant  different  gifts  or  talents. 

By  comparison  of  the  nightingale's  full  power  of  song,  with 
the  glowworm's  little  twinkling  light,  children  decided  that  talents 


416  MORAL   INSTRUCTION. FOURTH    STEP. 

differed  in  character  and  in  importance.  Gave,  as  examples  of 
talents  or  gifts,  riches,  mental  ability,  bodily  strength.  Relative 
value  of  these  gifts  touched  upon. 

4.  Teacher  next  put  on  the  board  the  heads  of  the  glow- 
worm's argument,  as  discovered  by  the  children,  thus : 

(a)  The  glowworm  states  that  he  admires  the  nightingale's 

song. 
(&)    He  argues  that  the  nightingale  ought  in  like  manner  to 

admire  his  lamp. 

(c)  He  states  that  God  gave  to  each  his  separate  gift. 

(d)  That  these  gifts  were  bestowed  for  the  general  good. 

The  propositions,  a,  Z>,  c,  having  been  clearly  made  out  before 
d  was  worked  out,  by  special  reference  to  the  pleasures  and  bene- 
fits we  derive  from  the  labors  of  the  highly  gifted.  (Eminent 
men,  and  their  works,  named,  including  the  poet  Cowper  himself.) 
IV.  Application. — Made  chiefly  by  reference  to  the  different 
points  in  which  they  succeed  or  fail.  How  those  who  make  much 
progress  may  be  tempted  to  feel  toward  those  who  are  slow? 
How  those  who  are  slow  might  be  tempted  to  feel  toward  those 
who  are  more  talented  ?  What  considerations  would  tend  to  pre- 
vent wrong  feelings  on  the  side  of  the  more  advanced  ?  of  the  less 
advanced  ?  Reference  to  "  the  Parable  of  the  Talents." 

In  giving  this  lesson,  the  teacher  exercised  the  conceptive 
faculty  in  the  introductory  descriptions,  and  the  reasoning  faculties 
in  drawing  out  the  analogy. 

2.  Report  of  Lesson  on  "Strife." 

I. — Definition  of  the  term.  Draw  from  the  children  its  vari 
ous  meanings ;  as,  contention,  disagreement,  quarrelling.  Show 
the  origin  of  the  word,  in  connection  with  strive.  Show  the  dif- 
ference implied — one  may  strive ;  for  strife,  there  must  be  two. 
Show  the  senses,  good  and  bad,  in  which  the  term  may  be  used. 
"Write  on  the  board,  from  dictation  of  the  children,  "  Strife  is  the 
effort  to  obtain  victory.  It  requires  two  for  strife.  The  word 
implies  disagreement,  opposition,  and  contention." 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION. FOURTH   STEP.  417 

f 

II.  First  Example. — 1.    Refer  to  Exodus  ii.  13.     Touch  on 
what  we  know.     The  similarity  of  race ;   faith ;   condition ;   sor- 
row.    Touch  on  what  we  do  not  know.     Who  was  strong,  and 
who  was  weak  ?   who  was  right,  and  who  was  wrong  ? 

2.  Cause  of  Strife. — Refer  to  Proverbs  xvi.  28.     Define  fro- 
ward,  as  contrary.     A  froward  person  is  one  bent  on  having  his 
own  way,  right  or  wrong ;  inclined  to  contradiction,  and  always 
ready  for  a  quarrel.     Compare  this  with  Exodus  ii.  13,  to  show 
that  the  violent  man  was  the  one  to  blame.     General  conclusion 
drawn. 

3.  Consequence. — The  flight  of  Moses,  who  had  come  down  at 
that  time  seeking  to  free  them  from  their  bonds.     So  far  as  it  de- 
pended on  the  combatants,  the  result  was  an  addition  of  forty 
years  to  the  length  of  Israel's  captivity. 

Second  Example. — 1.  Strife  of  Jacob  and  Laban.  Account 
given  by  the  children.  Progress  of  Jacob  from  Padan-aram 
shown  on  the  map. 

2.  The  Cause. — Covetousness  of  Laban. 

3.  The  Consequence. — As   Laban  was   stronger  than  Jacob, 
Jacob,  his  wives  and  children,  were  in  danger  of  being  brought 
back,  never  permitted  to  go  to  the  land  of  Canaan,  or  meet  Isaac ; 
deprived  of  their  property ;  forced  to  become  servants.     To  pre- 
vent such  injustice,  God  himself  interfered. 

Third  Example. — 1.  Strife  between  the  servants  of  Abraham 
and  the  servants  of  Lot.  Example  drawn  from  the  children. 

2.  Cause. — Rivalry.      Compare  this  with  the  strife  amongst 
the  disciples,  when  they  strove  who  should  be  greatest. 

3.  Consequence. — The  separation  of  chief  friends. 

Fourth  Example. — 1.  Strife  between  Jephthah  and  the 
Ephraimites.  Account  given  as  before. 

2.  Cause. — Pride  and  jealousy. 

3.  Consequences. — (Threatened)    ungrateful   murder,   dreadful 
massacre  ;    (actual)  civil  war  and  slaughter. 

III.  Causes   of  Strife. — 1.    The   causes    already   discovered 
summed  up,  and  written  on  the  board. 

18* 


4:18  MOKAL    INSTRUCTION. FOURTH    STEP. 

2.  Other  causes  found.     "Whether  mentioned  in  Scripture,  or 
drawn  from  observation  ? 

LIST. 

Frowardness.  *  Jealousy. 

Covetousness.  Envy. 

Rivalry.  Tale-bearing. 

Pride.  Foolish  J'esting. 

Drunkenness,  &c. 

IV.  Consequences. — Drawn  from  the  children. 

LIST. 

Loss  of  Time. 

"       Property. 

"       Life. 

"       Peace. 

"       Power  of  Doing  Good. 
From  St.  James,  "  Confusion,  and  every  evil  work." 

V.  Application. — How  to  avoid  strife  ?     Consider  who  is  the 
author  of  strife.     Consider  the  conduct  of  those  who  refuse  to  be 
disturbed  by  it.     The  conduct  of  Abraham,  and  its  effect.     The 
conduct  of  Gideon.     Compare  this  with  that  of  Jephthah.     Refer 
to  texts :  "  A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath,"  and  "  Blessed  are 
the  peacemakers." 


INVENTIVE    DRAWING.* 


INTRODUCTION. 

Principles  of  this  Course  Developed. 

PESTALOZZI,  the  great  and  successful  advocate  of  more  natural 
methods  of  teaching,  considered  that  form,  number,  and  sound 
supplied  materials  for  the  development  of  the  principal  faculties 
of  the  mind.  Moreover,  he  considered  the  communication  of 
knowledge  of  little  importance,  unless  tending  to  the  development 
of  the  mind  on  the  basis  of  given  facts. 

Drawing,  the  subject  of  this  treatise,  belongs  to  form,  and  pre- 
sents means  for  the  most  elementary  instruction.  In  its  first  stage 
it  may  even  be  preparatory  to  writing,  as  letters  are  mere  compo- 
sitions of  straight  and  curved  lines,  for  the  performance  of  which 
the  hand  should  have  previously  attained  a  certain  degree  of  firm- 
ness and  dexterity. 

Let  us  now  consider  what  are  the  faculties  that  are  developed 
by  drawing.  In  consequence  of  the  way  in  which  this  art  is  usu- 
ally taught,  many  think  that  it  only  exercises  the  faculty  of  imita* 
tion.  We  admit  that  imitation  cultivates  the  hand  and  the  eye, 
but  doubt  whether  it  cultivates  or  draws  out  talent  and  ingenuity. 
For  even  in  copying  the  products  of  masters,  we  ought  to  be  able 
to  appreciate  their  merits,  not  merely  in  the  aggregate,  but  also  in 
detail. 

Schelling,  the  great  German  philosopher,  expresses  himself 
thus  :  u  In  a  time  when  people  believe  it  possible  to  proceed  with 

^         *  By  Hermann  Krusi,  the  inventor  of  this  system. 


420  INVENTIVE   DKAWING. 

one  leap  from  the  first  to  the  last  step  of  the  ladder  of  knowledge, 
the  sentence  may  appear  hard,  that  art,  like  everything  possessed 
with  vitality,  must  go  back  to  the  first  elements.  We  must  see 
how  every  original  product  of  art  rises  from  the  depth  of  imagina- 
tion, branching  out  into  an  infinite  variety  of  forms,  and  combin- 
ing at  last  into  a  graceful  whole.  This  power  of  invention  cannot 
be  communicated,  for  it  is  the  pure  gift  of  Nature,  reflecting  her- 
self in  the  mind.  A  true  artist  can  only  follow  the  law  which 
God  and  Nature  have  implanted  in  his  mind.  There  is  but  little 
help  from  outside ;  every  genius  ripens  by  its  own  strength." 

Thus  Schelling,  in  this  noble  passage,  recognizes  the  power  of 
Invention  as  the  principal  mover  and  creator  of  art. 

In  the  present  elementary  treatise,  we  intend  to  trace  the  pro- 
gressive steps  on  which  this  important  power  may  be  cultivated, 
and  to  associate  it  with  its  natural  ally,  Taste ;  which  latter  is  not 
such  an  arbitrary  ruler  as  is  generally  believed,  but  subject  to 
fixed  laws. 

But  the  object  of  this  method,  far  from  tending  only  to  amuse- 
ment, is  an  eminently  practical  one.  "Whilst  acknowledging  that 
the  principle  of  invention  is  vastly  encouraged  in  this  country  in 
all  the  improvements  which  administer  to  gain  and  comfort,  we 
find  occasionally  a  woeful  absence  of  taste,  and  are  obliged  to  bor- 
row the  finest  patterns  for  ornament  from  France  and  Germany, 
in  both  of  which  countries  drawing  is  introduced  as  a  popular 
branch  of  instruction. 

If  the  schools  of  this  country  will  admit  drawing  as  the  most 
elementary,  the  most  distinct  and  pleasing  branch  of  instruction, 
they  will  become  more  practical  than  they  have  hitherto  been, 
and  apply  more  to  the  wants  of  the  present  generation. 

The  first  exercises  belonging  to  this  course  are  of  such  an  ele- 
mentary character,  that  they  may  precede  the  knowledge  of  let- 
ters and  of  writing.  Even  geometrical  forms  may  be  introduced 
at  this  step,  because  the  increase  in  the  number  of  lines  in  every 
succeeding  exercise,  leads  necessarily  to  all  the  forms  on  which  the 
science  of  Geometry  is  built.  Since,  however,  the  elements  of 
form  have  already  been  described  under  a  separate  head,  the 
teacher  is  referred  to  it  whenever  she  finds  definitions  necessary. 


INVENTIVE   DRAWING. FIKST    STEP. 

In  case  the  children  have  already  an  idea  of  the  geometrical  forms 
which  arise  from  the  combination  of  several  lines,  the  teacher 
must  not  neglect  the  opportunity  of  putting. appropriate  questions, 
by  way  of  repetition.  There  are,  no  doubt,  many  combinations  of 
lines  which  cannot  be  designated  by  any  name,  and  which,  as  a 
product  of  the  children's  invention,  must  be  received  as  readily  as 
those  which  have  been  adopted  as  symbols  of  form.  In  order  to 
show  the  plan  of  teaching,  the  first  exercise  will  be  introduced  as 
a  model  lesson.  It  is  supposed  that  the  children  are  already  ac- 
quainted with  the  ideas  of  vertical,  horizontal,  slanting,  parallel, 
&c.  Although  it  was  stated  that  this  knowledge  was  not  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  begin  this  course,  it  cannot  be  denied  that,  at 
the  age  at  which  children  are  required  to  possess  the  power  of 
drawing  lines  with  tolerable  accuracy,  an  acquaintance  with  the 
most  prominent  geometrical  forms  may  be  expected,  or,  at  any 
rate,  will  be  very  desirable. 


FIKST    STEP. 

EXERCISES   WITH    STRAIGHT    LINES. 

EXERCISE  1. —  Combinations  with  Two  Lines. 

The  teacher  provides  herself  with  two  thin  sticks,  and  asks 
the  children  what  they  see  ?  Two  sticks.  Placing  them  ver- 
tically against  the  wall,  she  asks,  How  are  the  sticks  placed  ? 
They  stand.  If  you  wished  to  represent  these  sticks  by  means  of 
lines,  what  kind  of  lines  would  you  use  ?  Straight  lines.  Very 
well ;  arid  what  direction  would  you  give  the  straight  lines  ? 
They  must  be  vertical. 

The  teacher  then  may  place  the  sticks  horizontally  on  the 
floor,  and  ask,  How  are  they  now  situated  ?  They  lie  on  the 
floor.  "What  lines  would  you  use  in  order  to  represent  them 
thus  ?  Horizontal  lines. 

The  teacher  then  places  the  sticks  so  that  they  are  parallel  to 
each  other,  and  incline  to  the  right,  and  asks  the  children  what 
they  can  say  about  their  position,  and  what  lines  they  would  use 


422  INVENTIVE   DRAWING. FIRST    STEP. 

to  represent  them.  She  inclines  them  to  the  left,  and  asks  similar 
questions.  After  this  she  makes  them  incline  toward  each  other, 
and  draws  from  the  children,  that  they  approach  each  other  at  one 
end,  and  are  further  apart  at  the  other.  By  making  the  sticks 
meet,  an  angle  is  produced,  which  the  children  name,  and  tell  by 
what  kind  of  lines  they  would  represent  it.  If  the  end  of  one 
stick  is  placed  against  the  side  of  the  other,  two  angles  are  pro- 
duced, which  can  be  either  right  angles,  or  one  angle  acute  and 
the  other  obtuse.  By  making  the  sticks  cross,  four  angles  are 
produced,  which  must  be  either  all  right,  or  two  angles  acute  and 
two  obtuse.  This  exhausts  the  combinations  which  can  be  made 
with  two  sticks  or  two  lines.  (See  Plat0  I.) 

The  children,  having  thus  obtained  a  clear  insight  into  the 
forms  they  will  have  to  delineate,  are  told  to  draw  upon  their 
slates  the  combinations  which  the  teacher  forms  with  the  sticks. 
In  doing  this,  they  should  be  instructed  not  to  change  the 
position  of  their  slates.  When  each  has  drawn  one  or  more 
figures,  the  teacher,  selecting  a  number  of  those  exhibiting  the 
most  taste  and  ingenuity,  puts  them  on  the  blackboard.  She 
then  calls  their  attention  to  them,  making  such  suggestions  or 
remarks  as  may  occur  to  her.  The  figures  should  now  all  be 
erased,  both  from  the  board  and  from  the  slates,  and  the  children 
called  upon  to  reproduce  them  from  memory  as  far  as  possible, 
thus  cultivating  the  conceptive  faculty. 

Plate  I.  represents  all  the  combinations  with  two  lines. 

PLATE  I. 


INVENTIVE   DRAWING. FIRST    STEP. 


423 


EXERCISE  2. —  Combinations  with  Three  Lines. 

Although  the  first  exercise  was  conducted  entirely  under  the 
direction  of  the  teacher,  this  was  only  done  for  the  sake  of  mak- 
ing the  children  aware  of  the  variety  of  positions  which  two  sticks 
or  two  lines  can  assume.  ^Now  the  children  will  be  able  to  make 
these  combinations  for  themselves.  It  is,  however;  advisable,  not 
to  dispense  with  the  sticks  as  yet,  but,  placing  three  of  them  in  the 
hands  of  a  child,  request  him  to  arrange  them  on  the  floor,  or 
v against  the-wall,  in  as  many  ways  as  he  can.  When  his  power 
of  combining  them  is  exhausted,  another  child  is  called  upon 
to  arrange  them  in  some  other  way,  the  teacher  all  the  while 
repeating  questions  like  these  :  "What  form  do  these  sticks  repre- 
sent ?  What  lines  would  you  use  to  copy  it  ?  &c.  Occasionally 
the  teacher  may  infuse  new  life  into  the  exercise,  by  suggesting  a 
new  application.  For  instance :  combining  the  sticks  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner, 


she  may  ask  whether  they  recognize  this  form  ?  As  a  conse- 
quence of  this  hint,  several  other  letters  will  probably  make  their 
appearance,  suggested  by  the  children  themselves.  If  the  chil- 
dren make  a  combination  of  the  triangle,  it  is  for  the  teacher  to 
suggest  some  varieties  of  triangles  produced  by  the  difference  in 
the  angles.  The  question  may  occasionally  be  brought  up, 
whether,  for  instance, 


424 


INVENTIVE   DRAWING. FIRST   STEP. 


have  to  be  received  as  different  combinations — the  one  being  only 
the  reverse  of  the  other.  The  answer  to  this  is,  that,  geometri- 
cally considered,  they  are  the  same,  but  different  as  objects  of 
drawing.  Nevertheless,  considering  the  immense  variety  of  forms 
which  the  combinations  of  even  a  few  lines  afford,  the  teacher 
would  do  better  to  dispense  with  designs  which  are  merely  the 
reverse  of  others,  or  are  simply  modified  by  having  their  lines 
somewhat  shorter  or  longer. 

After  the  combinations  have  been  made,  by  means  of  sticks, 
before  the  eyes  of  the  children,  they  are  required  to  draw  them 
from  memory  upon  their  slates.  After  this,  the  teacher  goes 
round,  selects  the  best  ones,  and  draws  them  on  the* blackboard. 
If  she  finds  some  that  are  wrong,  she  may  submit  them  to  the 
criticism  of  the  class,  by  asking  them  in  what  they  are  wrong  ? 

Plate  II.  contains  combinations  with  three  lines. 

PLATE  II. 


K 


A 


EXERCISE  3. —  Combinations  with  Four  Lines. 

The  use  of  the  sticks  will  not  be  found  any  longer  necessary, 
in  order  to  illustrate  this  and  the  following  exercises.  The  teacher 
may  simply  tell  the  children  to  combine  four  lines  in  as  many  ways 
as  they  can,  and  collect  their  best  productions.  The  blackboard 
will  soon  be  filled  with  little  designs.  As  before  hinted,  the 


INVENTIVE   DRAWING. — FIRST    STEP. 


425 


teacher  would  do  well  to  suggest  occasionally  a  four-sided  figure, 
or  a  letter  formed  of  four  lines, 


or  give  a  rough  outline  of  an  object, 


since  these  designs  will  be  productive  of  others. 
Plate  III.  contains  combinations  with  four  lines. 


PLATE  III. 


These  exercises  should  be  extended  to  figures  composed  of 
five,  six,  seven,  and  eight  lines  successively. 

Before  leaving  the  method  of  conducting  these  exercises  en- 
tirely to  the  discretion  of  the  teacher,  we  will  make  a  few  sugges- 
tions : 

1.  The  principle  of  combination  is  that  of  invention.  The 
inventive  power  is  not,  in  the  strictest  sense,  a  creative  power, 


426  INVENTIVE    DRAWING. — SECOND    STEP. 

but  simply  the  power  of  forming  a  new  aggregate  by  the  different 
application  of  the  same  elements.  The  feeling  with  which  the 
child  regards  his  productions,  which  probably  he  never  saw  be- 
fore, and  which,  perhaps,  never  existed,  is  one  of  intense  joy  and 
gratification.  This  gratification  is  shared  by  the  teacher,  who 
sees,  in  many  instances,  combinations  arise  which  surpass  her  ex- 
pectations, and  which  surprise  her  as  an  entire  novelty. 

2.  Invention,  at  this  Step,  will  not  thrive  in  a  healthy  man- 
ner, unless  the  teacher  gives  occasionally  some  useful  hints  and 
suggestions,  by  indicating  the  directions  in  which  the  inventive 
talents  of  the  children  may  be  exerted  to  the  greatest  advantage. 
Again,  she  must  discourage  tasteless  combinations,  and  contrast 
those  that  show  unity  and  distinct  arrangement  of  parts,  with 
those  that  are  loose  and  disjointed. 

3.  It  will  be  seen,   that  in  the  combinations  of  angles,  tri- 
angles, four-sided  figures,  &c.,  the  number  four,  and  its  multiples, 
eight,  twelve,  sixteen,  &c.,  will  be  the  most  appropriate  for  regu- 
lar and  tasteful  combinations. 

SECOND     STEP. 

EXERCISE  1. —  Combinations  of  Four  Right  Angles. 

The  combination  of  four  right  angles  will  suggest  two  prin- 
cipal forms  of  arrangement — that  of  the  square,  and  that  of  the 

PLATE  IV. 


INVENTIVE   DRAWING. SECOND    STEP. 


427 


cross — as  seen  in  Plate  IV.,  figs.  1  and  2.  Besides  these,  other 
forms  of  a  mixed  character  may  be  produced.  After  the  teacher 
has  collected  a  great  number  of  designs  of  the  children,  and 
drawn  them  on  the  blackboard,  she  may  make  an  interesting 
examination  as  to  their  innate  feelings  of  taste,  by  asking  which 
of  these  designs  they  like  best  ?  She  will  generally  find  their 
answers  in  accordance  with  the  judgment  of  educated  persons. 
"Without  reasoning,  at  this  Step,  upon  the  laws  of  taste,  she  may 
nevertheless  practically  let  them  see,  that  in  all  the  good  designs, 
the  removal  of  but  one  part  would  destroy  the  unity  and  beauty 
of  the  whole;  whilst  in  those  which  are  disjointed,  the  effect  is 
hardly  perceptible.  For  instance  : 


Such  combinations  hardly  deserve  the  name  of  designs,  and  must 
be  rejected,  not  on  the  principle  of  combination,  but  on  that  of 
taste. 

EXERCISE  2. — Combinations  of  Four  Acute  Angles. 
PLATE  V. 


. 


-428 


INVENTIVE   DKAWING. SECOND    STEP. 


EXERCISE  3. —  Combinations  of  Four  Obtuse  Angles. 
PLATE  VI. 

\ 


/     \ 


EXERCISE  4. —  Combinations  of  Four  Eight  and  Four  Acute  Angles. 

PLATE  VII. 


CJ 

V 


EXERCISE  5. —  Combinations  of  Four  Eight  and  Four  Obtuse  Angles. 
PLATE  VIII. 


INVENTIVE   DJJAWING. — SECOND   STEP. 


EXERCISE  6.—  Combinations  of  Four  Right,  Four  Obtuse,  and  Four 
Acute  Angles. 


PLATE  IX. 


M 


'\ 


z \ 


430 


INVENTIVE   DRAWING. SECOND   STEP. 


EXERCISE  7. —  Combinations  of  Triangles. 

We  will  only  allude  to  the  order  of  these  combinations,  with- 
out giving  diagrams,  since  the  children  can  produce  them  now 
with  ease : 

(a)  Combination  of  four  rectangular  triangles.     (Plate  X.) 

(b)  Combination  of  four  acute-angular  triangles.     (Plate  XL) 

(c)  Combination  of  four  obtuse-angular  triangles.    (Plate  XII.) 

(d)  Combination  of  all  the  above  kinds  of  triangles,  indis- 
criminately united.     (Plate  XIII.) 

PLATE  X. 


A   V 


PLATE  XI. 


A 


V 


PLATE  XIL 


INVENTIVE   DRAWING. SECOND    STEP. 

PLATE  XIII. 


431 


EXERCISE  8. —  Combination  of  Quadrangular  Figures. 

(a)  Combination  of  squares.  (J)  Of  rectangles.  (c)  Of 
rhombs.  (d)  Of  rhomboids.  (e)  Of  trapeziums.  (/)  Of 
trapezoids.  •  (#)  Of  all  the  above  kinds  of  quadrangular  figures, 
indiscriminately  united. 

NOTE. — Some  of  the  above-named  forms  are  less  adapted  to 
combinations  than  others.  Of  those  that  are  very  applicable  to 
architectural  designs,  we  will  name  the  rectangle,  in  connection 
with  the  trapezoid,  as  seen  in  Plate  XIV.  All,  however,  can  be 
used  for  ornamental  purposes,  as  seen  in  Plate  XV. 

PLATE  XIY. 


D 
D 

n 

D 

D 

^                \ 

432 


INVENTIVE   DRAWING. — SECOND   STEP. 


PLATE  XV. 


"We  have  only  shown  a  few  designs  that  can  be  obtained  by 
each  exercise ;  but  any  observing  teacher  will  be  astonished  at 
the  multiplicity  and  beauty  of  the  designs  that  may  be  obtained 
from  children  of  even  medium  capacity.  It  will  convince  any 
one,  that  childhood  is  the  age  for  combinations,  and  that  the  ima- 
gination at  this  age  is  more  fertile  than  in  the  adult. 

The  limitation  of  the  number  of  forms  under  the  preceding 
heads  was  at  first  necessary,  in  order  to  cause  their  inventive 
power  to  keep  pace  with  their  power  of  execution.  Hereafter, 
the  number  need  not  be  limited,  but  it  will  be  subject  to  the  fitness 
required  in  its  application. 


INVENTIVE   DRAWING. THIRD   STEP. 


433 


THIRD    STEP. 

COMBINATIONS    OF    CURVED    LINES. 

EXERCISE  1. — The  Idea  of  Concave  and  Convex  Developed. 

The  line  which  is  used  in  all  the  exercises  of  this'  Step,  is  a 
part  of  the  circle,  called  an  arc.  (See  exercises  on  "  Form.") 
Some  properties  of  the  curved  line  have  already  been  discussed 
under  the  head  of  u  Form."  There  remains,  however,  one  prop- 
erty to  be  developed,  namely,  that  of  concave  and  convex,  which 
the  teacher  can  do  somewhat  after  the  following  plan  : 

The  teacher  presents  to  the  class  an  object  in  the  form  of  a 
hollow  hemisphere,  and  asks  whether  they  see  any  difference  be- 
tween one  side  of  the  object  and  the  other  ?  The  children  will 
probably  say  that  one  of  its  sides  is  hollow,  whilst  the  other  is  not. 
If  the  teacher  wishes  to  illustrate  the  subject  in  a  still  more  strik- 
ing manner,  she  may  show  that  the  hollow  side  acts  as  a  cup,  and 
is  capable  of  holding  other  objects,  whilst  they  would  roll  off  from 
the  other  side.  She  may  show  them  a  solid  sphere,  and  ask  them 
whether  the  surface  they  see  is  hollow,  or  not  ?  A  watch  glass 

PLATE  XVI. 


19 


434:  INVENTIVE   DRAWING. THIRD   STEP. 

may  also  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the  idea  of  hollow,  and  its 
opposite.  The  teacher  may  then  draw  an  arc  on  the  blackboard, 
and  ask  them  to  point  out  its  hollow  side,  and  the  one  which  is 
not  hollow.  She  then  gives  them  the  name  of  concave,  instead  of 
hollow,  and  of  convex,  to  designate  the  opposite  of  the  line. 

After  .this,  the  children  might  draw  the  arc  in  different  posi- 
tions, as  seen  in  Plate  XVI. 


EXERCISE  2. — Curvilinear  Angles. 

"Whilst  the  different  sides  of  straight-linear  angles  are  based 
upon  the  width  of  their  opening,  we  shall  find  that  the  distinctive 
feature  of  curvilinear  angles  is  based  on  the  concavity  or  convex- 
ity of  its  lines.  In  order  to  develop  this  idea,  let  the  teacher  draw 
the  angles  (see  Plate  XVII.),  and  ask  the  following  questions : 
Suppose,  in  fig.  1,  you  were  placed  in  the  inside  of  the  angle, 
viewing  the  sides  of  its  arcs,  which  sides  would  be  turned  toward 
you — the  concave,  or  the  convex  sides  ?  The  concave  sides. 
Let  us  view  fig.  2  in  the  same  manner.  What  sides  of  the  arcs 
do  you  see  ?  The  convex  sides.  And  in  fig.  3  ?  One  arc  shows 
its  concave  side,  and  the  other  its  convex  side.  The  teacher  then 
gives  the  name  of  concave  angle  to  fig.  1 ;  fig.  2  is  called  the 
convex  angle ;  fig.  3  would,  according  to  its  properties,  be  called 
concave-convex  angle ;  but  in  order  to  have  a  shorter  word,  and  on 
account  of  its  mixed  character,  let  us  call  it  a  mixed  angle.  The 
children  may  now  draw  these  different  angles  in  different  positions, 
and  with  their  openings  of  different  degrees. 


INVENTIVE   DRAWING. THIRD   STEP.  435 


Curvilinear  Combinations. 

The  curved  line  is  in  preference  the  line  of  grace  and  beauty, 
and  offers  a  greater  variety  of  pleasing  designs  than  the  straight 
line.  The  child  will  delight  in  the  increased  scope  which  its  ex- 
ercises will  afford  to  his  imagination.  A  curvilinear  angle,  for 
instance,  will  present  to  him  the  image  of  a  cup,  which,  with  the 
addition  of  some  marginal  ornaments,  may  branch  out  into  the 
likeness  of  a  flower.  The  effect  of  this  discovery  is  twofold  :  it 
must  lead  the  attention  of  the  child  toward  nature's  fairest  pro- 
ductions— the  flowers,  &c. — and  the  treasures  of  art ;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  he  may  easily  be  led  to  apply  his  inventive  talent  to 
the  production  of  tasteful  patterns,  for  domestic  use  as  well  as  for 
the  requirements  of  industry.  The  true  educator  cannot  but  ap- 
prove of  means  given  to  him  to  develop  that  eminently  moral 
power,  taste,  for  which  our  schools  have  been  unable  hitherto  to 
contribute  even  the  smallest  mite,  unless  by  the  slavish  imitation 
of  copies  in  drawing.  This,  however,  considers  taste  but  as  an 
acquired  faculty,  whilst  the  means  presented  here  propose  to  ex- 
pand the  innate  germs  of  a  divine  power  into  evergreen  branches 
of  grace  and  loveliness. 


EXERCISE  3. — Combination  of  Four  Concave  Angles. 
PLATE  XVIII. 


436 


INVENTIVE   DRAWING. — TRIED   STEP. 


EXERCISE  4. —  Combination  of  Four  Convex  Angles. 
PLATE  XIX. 


EXERCISE  5. — Combination  of  Four  Mixed  Angles. 
PLATE  XX. 


EXERCISE   6. —  Combination  of  a    Certain  Number  of   Concave, 
Convex,  and  Mixed  Angles. 

PLATE  XXI. 


INVENTIVE   DRAWING. THIED    6TKP. 


437 


EXEKCISE  7. —  Combination  of  Two-sided  Figures. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  them,  as  seen  in  Plate  XXII.,  figs. 
A,  B,  c,  a  definition  of  which  must  be  made  by  the  children  them- 
selves. The  form  of  A  is  sometimes  called  a  double  convex  lens ; 
that  of  B,  a  crescent.  Fig.  c  has  a  peculiar  feature,  in  having  both 
angles  outside.  These  angles  are  called,  in  geometry,  re-entrant 
angles. 

PLATE  XXII. 


After  this  explanation,  the  pupils  proceed  to  the  combination 
of  the  above  figures. 


EXERCISE  8. — Combination  of  Triangular  Figures. 

We  content  ourselves  with  giving  the  different  kinds  of  tri- 
angles which  can  be  used  for  these  combinations.  (See  Plate 
XXIII.) 

The  children  will  take  pleasure  in  using  them  for  the  invention 
of  many  tasteful  designs. 

PLATE  XXIII. 


438 


INVENTIVE   DRAWING. — THIRD    STEP. 


EXERCISE  9. —  Combination  of  Four-sided  Figures. 

"We  give,  in  Plate  XXIV.,  a  variety  of  four-sided  figures  ob- 
tained under  this  condition.  Figs.  1,  2,  3,  have  all  their  angles 
inside.  Figs.  4,  5,  6,  those  which  have  one  re-entrant  angle. 
Figs.  7,  8,  9,  have  two,  three,  or  four  re-entrant  angles. 

PLATE  XXIV. 


Of  the  immense  variety  of  combinations  which  this  exercise 
affords,  we  can  only  give  a  faint  idea  in  Plate  XXV. 


INVENTIVE   DRAWING. THIRD   STEP.  4:39 

PLATE  XXV. 
1 


440  INVENTIVE   DRAWING. THIRD    STEP. 

The  fig.  in  Plate  XXVI.  combines  three  and  four-sided  figures. 
PLATE  XXVI. 


The  design  in  Plate  XXVII.  shows  how  easily  curvilinear 
figures  can  be  shaped  into  flower-like  forms,  which  are  often  found 
in  patterns  for  manufacturing  purposes.  To  draw,  however,  a  de- 
sign of  the  above  kind  correctly,  and  with  the  attributes  of  good 
taste,  several  powers  besides  that  of  invention  must  necessarily 
co-operate.  Of  these,  we  mention  particularly  a  mathematical 
appreciation  of  the  laws  of  Regularity  and  Symmetry,  to  supply 
which  will  be  the  object  of  the  next  Step. 


INVENTIVE    DRAWING. — FOURTH    STEP. 
PLATE  XXVII. 


441 


FOURTH    STEP. 

DICTATION    OF    REGULAR   AND    SYMMETRICAL    DESIGNS. 

Introduction. 

When  we  allowed  the  inventive  faculties  of  the  children  a 
scope  unfettered  by  exact  measurement,  it  was  done  with  the  ex- 
pectation that  their  sense  of  taste  would  guide  them  almost  uncon- 
sciously to  give  to  their  designs  the  necessary  exactness  of  delinea- 
tion. It  becomes,  however,  at  this  Step,  the  teacher's  duty  to 
develop,  in  a  systematic  manner,  a  mathematical  conception  of 
exact  measurement,  which  will  enhance  the  merit  of  the  produc- 
tions of  her  class.  To  do  this,  she  must  begin  with  the  division 
of  the  simple  line. 
19* 


4:4:2  INVENTIVE   DRAWING. FOURTH    STEP. 

EXERCISE  1. — Division  of  Lines  into  Equal  Parts. 

The  exercises  under  this  head  may  be  treated  in  the  following 
order : 

1.  Let  the  children  divide  given  lines  into  two,  four,  eight 
equal  parts. 

2.  Into  three,  six,  and  nine  equal  parts. 

3.  Into  five  and  ten  equal  parts. 

NOTE. — The  lines  may  be  straight  or  curved.  Exercises  of 
this  kind  will  also  afford  a  practical  illustration  of  the  nature  and 
relation  of  fractions. 


Designs  Based  on  the  Division  of  Lines  of  Two  or  Four  Equal 

Parts. 

Some  Laws  of  Taste  Developed. — The  object  of  this  exercise  is 
to  fix  certain  points  in  a  given  square,  from  which  other  lines  may- 
be drawn,  till  we  obtain  a  simple  design. 

In  order  to  introduce  the  pupils  to  this  new  kind  of  construction, 
we  advise  the  teacher  to  make  them  draw  the  first  design  under 
her  dictation,  as  will  be  shown  in  the  next  model  lesson. 

EXERCISE  2. — Dictation. 

Teacher  (dictating). — Draw  a  square  ;  then  divide  each  of  its 
sides  into  two  equal  parts,  and  draw  from  each  of  the  points  of 
intersection  a  line  to  the  opposite  point.  How  many  squares  have 
you  thus  obtained  ? 

Children. — Four  small  squares. 

Teacher. — Now  draw  two  diagonal  lines  ;  that  is,  lines  which 
are  drawn  from  one  corner  of  the  square  to  the  other.  How 
many  triangles  have  you  now  got?  What  kind  of  triangles? 
How  do  you  like  the  design?  (See  Plate  XXVIII.,  fig.  1.)  Let 
us  try  to  improve  it  somewhat,  by  removing  some  lines  according 
to  my  further  dictation.  Rub  out  the  right  half  of  the  upper 
horizontal  side  of  the  original  square.  Do  the  same  with  the 


INVENTIVE   DRAWING. — FOURTH   STEP.  443 

lower  half  of  the  right  vertical  side ;  the  same  with  the  left  half 
of  the  lower  horizontal  side  ;  the  same  with  the  upper  half  of  the 
left  vertical  side.  (Plate  XXVIII.,' fig.  2.)  What  have  you 
now  left  ?  Do  you  like  the  design  better  than  before  ?  Why  ? 

PLATR  XXVIII. 


The  reason  for  liking  a  thing  better,  or  for  giving  a  preference 
in  matters  of  taste,  seems  at  first  above  the  capacity  of  children. 
And  yet  such  a  question  might  elicit  very  sensible  answers,  and 
not  the  less  true  from  not  being  scientifically  given.  Each  child 
sees  that  the  four  remaining  triangles  are  now  more  distinctly  seen, 
because  they  have  been  separated  from  each  other.  Again,  those" 
triangles  are  all  situated  in  different  positions  with  reference  to 
each  other,  which  affords  a  pleasant  variety  to  the  eye.  Dis- 
tinction of  parts  and  variety  of  position  therefore  form  an  impor- 
tant requisite  of  good  taste. 

EXERCISE  3. — Dictation  of  Design  in  Plate  XXIX.,  Fig.  2. 

Draw  another  square.  Divide  each  side  into  four  equal  parts. 
How  is  this  to  be  done  ?  Next  draw  from  all  these  points  (ex- 
cept from  those  in  the  centre  of  each  side),  lines  to  points  directly 
opposite.  Describe  the  parts  of  the  figure  as  it  appears  now. 
What  form  do  you  see  in  the  centre  of  the  figure  ?  And  what 
forms  are  situated  on  each  side  of  that  central  square  ?  What  forms 


444  INVENTIVE   DRAWING. — FOURTH   STEP. 

are  situated  at  the  corners  of  the  original  square?  (See  Plate  XXIX., 
fig.  1.)  Now  draw  a  line  from  the  left  upper  corner  of  the  central 
square,  to  the  centre  of  the  upper  horizontal  side  of  the  large 
square  ;  next  from  the  right  upper  corner  of  the  central  square  a 
line  to  the  right  upper  corner  of  the  large  square  ;  after  this,  from 
the  same  corner  of  the  central  square,  a  line  to  the  middle  of  the 
right  vertical  side  of  the  large  square ;  again,  from  the  lower 
right  corner  of  the  central  square  a  line  to  the  right  lower  cor- 
ner of  the  large  square,  &c.  &c.  The  teacher  will  easily  see 
how  the  dictation  is  to  be  completed,  as  shown  by  the  light 
dotted  lines  in  fig.  1.  "When  all  the  necessary  lines  have  been 
dictated,  it  will  be  found  that  the  design  lacks  that  distinctness  to 
which  we  have  alluded  in  a  former  dictation.  In  order  to  effect 
this,  some  lines,  or  rather  portions  of  lines,  must  be  removed. 
The  teacher  may  now  continue  :  "  Remove  the  left  half  of  the 
upper  horizontal,  and  the  right  half  of  the  lower  horizontal  side 
of  the  large  square.  Again,  remove  the  upper  half  of  the  right 
vertical  and  the  lower  half  of  the  left  vertical  side  of  the  large 
square." 

The  children  will  now  see  more  clearly  the  plan  of  the  pro- 
posed design ;  but  there  are  still  some  superfluous  lines.  In  order 
to  test  their  feeling  of  taste,  the  teacher  might  ask  the  class  what 
lines  they  think  should  be  further  erased  ?  Very  probably  some 
children  will  propose  to  remove  all  the  pieces  marked  a  (see 
Diagram).  In  addition  to  this,  the  teacher  may  tell  them  to 
erase  all  those  lines  which  form  continuations  of  the  sides  of  the 
central  square.  It  now  stands  as  seen  in  fig.  2. 

The  design  being  now  completed,  the  teacher  wishes  the  class 
to  describe  all  the  portions  of  the  design.  Of  what  does  it  con- 
sist ?  Of  one  square  surrounded  by  four  rhomboids.  Repeat 
this. 

For  the  sake  of  improving  their  crude  notions  of  taste,  a  judi- 
cious teacher  may  ask  questions  like  the  following,  if  her  class  is 
sufficiently  advanced  :  Of  what  did  you  say  the  design  consists  ? 
Are  the  parts  all  uniform,  or  is  there  some  variety  in  them  ? 
Are  the  rhomboids  all  placed  in  the  same  manner  ?  Before  you 
erased  some  of  the  lines,  did  the  rhomboids  appear  distinctly? 


INVENTIVE   DRAWING. FOURTH    STEP. 


445 


Did  they  afterward  ?  When  did  they  show  to  best  advantage  ? 
If  I  removed  one  of  the  rhomboids,  would  the  design  look  so 
well  as  before  ?  "Why  not  ? 

The  teacher  may  also  take  occasion,  if  she  finds  a  design  badly 
drawn,  from  a  want  of  accuracy  in  dividing  the  lines  into  four 
equal  parts,  or  for  other  reasons,  to  contrast  such  a  design,  as  seen 
in  Plate  XXIX.,  fig.  3,  with  one  that  is  correct,  and  ask  which 
they  like  best  ?  Why  ? 


Without  wishing  to  anticipate  the  answers  of  the  children,  we 
would  remind  the  teacher,  that  the  size  of  the  central  square  in 
fig.  3  is  too  large,  at  the  expense  of  the  rhomboids,  and  thus  pre- 
vents the  design  from  being  symmetrical. 

It  has  already  been  suggested,  that  in  these  questions  on  taste, 
the  teacher  must  neither  reason  nor  lecture  before  the  children, 
but  simply  ask  questions,  and  lead  them  to  discover  the  right  prin- 
ciple, by  using  language  which  they  can  comprehend.  But 
whether  this  is  found  practicable  or  not,  one  thing  is  sure  :  the 
teacher  who  would  cultivate  inventive  talent  in  the  children,  as 
well  as  her  own  judgment  about  designs,  must  clearly  comprehend 
that  unity,  variety,  distinctness,  and  symmetry  are  the  great  lead- 
ing principles  of  taste,  as  exemplified  by  all  the  works  of  the 
Creator. 

It  is  not  intended  that  the  teacher  should  dictate  all  the  de- 
signs of  this  kind,  but  that  the  children  should  ultimately  be 
induced  to  invent  others.  The  teacher  may  occasionally  suggest 
a  beginning,  rind  allow  them  to  finish  the  design.  The  next  exer- 


446 


INVENTIVE   DRAWING. — FOURTH   STEP. 


cise  will  render  the  path  of  invention  so  easy,  that  the  children 
will  not  fail  to  enter  upon  it. 


EXERCISE   4.— -Designs  Based  upon  the  Division  of  Lines  into 
Three  Equal  Parts. 

To  show  the  variety  even  in  simple  designs,  let  us  assume 
•each  side  of  a  square  divided  into  three  equal  parts,  and  indi- 
cate these  divisions  by  dots. 

Now  we  will  make  a  condition,  that  lines  may  be  drawn  from 
these  dots  to  those  opposite,  or  situated  on  some  other  line.  The 
following  diagrams  show  figures  that  may  be  thus  produced  after 
erasing  portions  of  the  original  outline.  (See  Plate  XXX.,  figs. 
1,  2,  3,  4.) 

PLATE  XXX. 


Suggestions  in  regard  to  Inventing  Regular  Designs. 

If  we  wish  to  add  more  details  to  these  simple  designs,  it  can 
be  done  in  two  ways  :  (a)  By  the  subdivision  of  the  lines  in  the 
design,  (b)  By  the  repetition  of  the  same  design.  We  will  give 
examples  of  each : 

(a)  By  Subdivision. — By  this  method  we  consider  the  simple 
design  as  the  one  intended  to  receive  the  additional  details, -which 
are  dependent  on  the  division  of  its  lines.  For  instance  :  select- 
ing fig.  1,  in  Plate  XXX.,  as  the  fundamental  design,  we  obtain, 
by  the  subdivision  of  its  lines,  and  the  addition  of  new  ones, 
the  designs  seen  in  Plate  XXXI.  Or,  selecting  fig.  2,  in  Plate 


INVENTIVE   DK AWING. FOURTH    STEP. 

PLATE  XXXI. 


PLATE   XXXII. 


XXX.,  for  a  similar  purpose,  we  obtain  the  designs  seen  in  Plate 
XXXII. 

(b)  By  Repetition. — By  this  method  we  repeat  the  same  de- 
sign a  certain  number  of  times,  like  a  pattern.  The  object  of 
such  an  arrangement  is,  to  get  an  enlarged  design  round  an  appar- 
ently new  centre,  of  which,  however,  some  superfluous  parts  will 
have  to  be  removed. 

"We  have  chosen  fig.  2,  in  Plate  XXX.,  to  be  repeated  four 
times.  (See  Plate  XXXIII.,  fig.  1.)  But  now  the  question 
arises,  which  lines  are  to  be  removed,  in  ordej  to  give  the  re- 


448  INVENTIVE   DRAWING.— FOURTH    fcTEP. 

PLATE  XXXIII. 


maining  parts  a  more  distinct  and  pleasing  appearance.      There 
will  be  three  ways  to  perform  this  operation,  namely : 

1.  "We  may  remove  the  middle  part  of  each  side  of  one  of  the 
small  squares  (Plate  XXXIII.,  fig.  2) ;   or 

2.  The  extreme  parts  of  each  side  of  the  same  squares. 

3.  The  two  middle  parts  of  each  side  of  the  large  square. 

It  may  also  be  appropriate  to  remove  the  lines  A  B  and  c  D. 
These  examples  will  show  what  a  scope  there  is  for  the  variety  of 
designs.  They  are  innumerable,  and  each  scholar  with  but  mod- 
erate talent  will  find  some  new  ones  which  he  may  call  his  own, 
and  will  appreciate  the  more  as  the  result  of  his  inventive  power. 
It  is  always  a  pleasant  feeling  to  invent ;  but  when  invention 
combines  taste  with  utility,  it  will  be  doubly  pleasant. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  change  the  outlines  of  designs,  so  as  to 
produce  more  variety.  Many  of  our  patterns  that  are  applied  to 
practical  purposes  are  within  a  triangle  ;  others  within  a  rectangle, 
hexagon,  octagon.  The  latter  of  these  figures,  which  is  easy  of 
construction,  and  affords  much  scope  for  variety,  will  here  recei*«a 
some  consideration. 

Construction  of  the  Octagon. 

The  teacher  dictates  to  the  children  :  Draw  a  square  with  two 
diagonals,  and  mark  the  middle  of  each  side  of  the  square  by  a 


INVENTIVE   DRAWING. — FOURTH    STEP.  449 

dot.  Measure  the  distance  from  this  middle  to  the  centre  of  the 
square  (where  the  diagonals  meet),  and  mark  off  the  same  dis- 
tance from  this  centre  on  the  diagonal  lines.  Finally,  unite  the 
points  obtained  by  the  last  operation  with  the  points  in  the  centre 
of  the  sides  of  the  square,  by  lines,  the  sum  of  which  constitutes 
the  regular  octagon.  (Plate  XXXIV.)  The  square  may  now  be 
removed,  having  only  served  for  the  construction  of  the  octagon. 

PLATE  XXXIV. 


There  is  another  method,  which  dispenses  with  the  square,  and 
only  makes  use  of  the  bisection  of  the  right  angle.  It  is  this : 
Draw  a  cross,  by  means  of  a  vertical  line  bisecting  a  horizontal 
line  of  the  same  length  at  right  angles.  Bisect  these  right  angles, 
by  lines  of  the  same  length  as  the  other  two.  Lastly,  unite  the 
ends  of  these  lines,  and  we  have  the  octagon. 

The  teacher  would  do  well  to  point  out  to  the  class,  that  the 
four  long  lines  alluded  to  in  the  second  construction  of  the  octa- 
gon, are  in  reality  but  diagonals  of  the  same.  These  diagonals 
will  be  an  important  aid  for  dictating  or  making  a  design,  since, 
from  their  equal  distribution,  it  is  possible  to  fix  many  other  points 
upon  them  at  regular  distances. 

In  proceeding  once  more  to  the  dictation  of  a  design,  in  order 
to  induce  the  class  to  produce  others,  the  teacher  will  find  that  it 
is  possible,  by  one  well-applied  remark,  to  produce  the  drawing 


450  INVENTIVE   DRAWING. FOURTH    STEP. 

of  several  lines  at  once,  instead  of  giving  directions  for  the  draw- 
ing of  every  separate  line. 

Dictation  of  a  Design  in  the  Octagon.    (See  Plate  X.XX.V.,  Fig.  1.) 

Draw  an  octagon,  and  let  the  four  lines  stand  which  were 
necessary  for  its  construction.  What  are  these  lines  called  ? 
How  are  they  divided  by  the  point  of  intersection  ?  Now  divide 
each  half  of  the  diagonals  into  two  equal  parts,  as  also  each  side 
of  the  octagon.  Next  draw  from  each  of  the  points  which  are 
situated  halfway  between  the  point  of  intersection  and  the  ends 
of  a  diagonal,  two  small  lines  to  the  centres  of  the  two  nearest 
sides  of  the  octagon.  How  many  such  lines  have  you  to  draw  ? 
Now  let  us  remove  all  the  superfluous  lines.  Erase  the  two  ex- 
treme quarters  of  each  diagonal,  and  the  design  is  completed.  Of 
what  parts  does  it  consist  ?  What  do  we  call  the  four-sided 
figures  round  the  centre  of  the  design  ?  What  those  situated  near 
its  corners  ?  Now  erase  your  figure.  Who  could  draw  it  entirely 
from  memory,  and  better  than  before  ? 

In  Plate  XXXV.,  fig.  2,  there  is  another  design,  made  by  the 

PLATE  XXXV. 


same  construction,  with  a  few  modifications,  and  resulting  in  what 
the  children  might  call  "  a  wheel,"  formed  of  eight  trapezoids. 
In  Plate  XXXVI.,  fig.  1,  the  design  is  based  upon  eight  diagonals 
(different  from  those  used  in  the  former  design),  which,  after  inter- 
secting each  other,  are  slightly  modified  by  erasing  some  of  their 
interior  parts. 


INVENTIVE   DRAWING. FOURTH    STEP, 

PLATE  XXXVI. 


451 


Eight  diagonals,  different  from  those  used  in  the  preceding  dia- 
grams, were  necessary  to  obtain  the  ingenious  design  in  Plate 
XXX VI.,  fig.  2.  After  drawing  these  eight  diagonals,  which 
will  form  two  squares,  a  smaller,  octagon  will  appear,  the  sides  of 
which  are  to  be  divided  into  three  equal  parts.  After  uniting  the 
opposite  points  of  these  sides  by  parallel  lines,  and  removing  their 
central  portion,  we  obtain  eight  small  squares  entangled  within 
each  other.  Doubling  these  squares,  in  order  to  make  them  ap- 
pear like  solid  frames,  the  effect  becomes  more  striking. 

The  pupil  will  easily  invent  many  more  designs,  by  dividing 
the  sides  of  the  octagon  into  three  equal  parts,  and  drawing  from 
the  points  of  intersection  lines  to  the  opposite  points. 


CURVILINEAR    DESIGNS,    WITH    DUE    REGARD    TO    THE    LAWS    OF 
REGULARITY    AND    SYMMETRY. 

Measurement  of  Arcs. 

Since  the  invention  of  curvilinear  designs  has  already  been 
treated  in  the  Second  Step  of  this  course,  a  few  words  only  may 
be  required  respecting  the  measurement  of  curves,  and  their  proper 
application. 

In  drawing  or  copying  an  arc  in  a  regular  manner,  it  will  be 
found  convenient  to  suppose  it  subtended  by  a  straight  line,  from 
the  middle  of  which  a  perpendicular  is  erected,  as  seen  in  the 
following  figure.  The  straight  line  which  forms  the  base,  indi- 


4:52 


INVENTIVE   DRAWING. — FOURTH    STEP. 


cates  the  direct  distance  from  one  point  of  the  arc  to  the  other, 
whilst  the  perpendicular  measures  the  concavity  of  the  arc. 

In  drawing,  for  instance,  the  shape  of  a  cup  or  vase,  a  recti- 
linear triangle  will  be  found  of  great  advantage,  to  support  the 
curves.     (See  figs.  1,  2.)     If  two  of  the  lines  are  bisected,  the 
FIG.  1.  FIG.  2.  FIG.  3. 


curves  may  assume  a  graceful  waving  character,  as  seen  in  fig.  3. 

It  is  easily  seen  how  the  designs  suggested  in  the  previous 
Step  may  be  used  for  the  regular  application  of  curvilinear  designs. 

The  design  in  Plate  XXXVII.  is  based  upon  the  cross-shaped 
figure  in  Plate  XXX.,  fig.  2.  Let  the  class  find  others.. 

PLATE  XXXVII. 


INVENTIVE   DRAWING. — FOURTH   STEP. 


Drawing  of  the  Circle. 


453 


"We  conclude  this  course  with  the  circle,  which  displays  the 
greatest  regularity  and  symmetry  of  outline,  and  which  on  this 
account  it  is  difficult  to  draw  correctly  without  the  aid  of  a  mathe- 
matical instrument.  Since,  however,  the  circle,  or  figures  resem- 
bling it-^-the  ellipse,  oval,  &c. — are  often  required  in  making  illus- 
trations, or  in  delineating  artificial  and  natural  objects,  it  is  desir- 
able to  train  the  hand  in  drawing  this  difficult  figure  as  accurately 
as  possible. 

In  doing  this,  it  is  safe  to  support  the  circle  by  the  same 
lines  which  were  necessary  for  the  construction  of  the  regular 
octagon.  Considering  their  point  of  intersection  as  the  centre 
of  the  circle,  these  lines  will  form  eight  radii,  over  the  ends  of 
which  the  circumference  may  be  drawn.  *  (See  fig.  1,  below.) 

Another  method,  which  will  at  the  same  time  be  found  con- 
venient for  drawing  hemisphere  maps  with  meridians,  requires 
merely  two  equal  lines  intersecting  at  right  angles.  If  we  draw 
an  arc  erected  on  d  f  of  the  height  of  a  c,  and  afterward  others 
at  stated  distances,  till  the  last  one  passes  over  e  (the  end  of  the 
radius  a  e),  we  have  in  the  last  line  produced  a  semicircle.  Re- 
peating the  same  operation  on  the  other  side,  another  semicircle  is 
produced.  Thus  we  obtain  the  whole  circle,  intersected  by  arcs, 
which  in  a  map  might  be  termed  meridians. 


FIG.  1. 


454  INVENTIVE   DRAWING. FOURTH    STEP. 

It  need  hardly  be  said,  that  many  beautiful  designs  might  be 
drawn  in  a  circle,  on  the  basis  of  its  diameters,  and  assisted  by  a 
regular  division  of  its  quadrants,  and  hence  of  the  angles  round 
the  centre.  These  designs  must  necessarily  display  an  endless 
variety,  since  all  the  elements  of  form  may  be  arranged  around 
one  rallying  point,  branching  out  in  all  directions. 


PROGRAMME 

OF 


COURSE  OF   ORAL  INSTRUCTION, 


FIRST  THREE  YEARS  IN  THE  OSWEGO  SCHOOLS. 


First  Year,  or  C  Class,  Primary. 

FIRST    TERM. 

1st  Fortnight. — Lessons  on  Human  Body  and  Mammals. 

2d          "  "          Form  and  Color. 

3d          "  Elementary  Geography,  or  Place  and 

Size. 

4th         "  Objects  and  Inventive  Drawing. 

5th         "  "          Moral  Instruction  and  Birds. 

6th         "  "          Human  Body  and  Color. 

1th         "  "          Form  and  Geography,  or  Place. 

SECOND    TERM. 

ls£  Fortnight. — Lessons  on  Size  and  Objects. 
Id          "  "          Inventive  Drawing  and  Moral  Instruc- 

tion. 

3df          "  "          Mammals  and  Human  Body. 

4th         "  «         Color  and  Form. 


456  PROGRAMME   OF   STUDIES. 

5ih  Fortnight. — Lessons  on  Place,  or  Geography,  and  Objects. 
6th         "  "          Inventive  Drawing  and  Moral  Instruc- 

tion. 

^Ith         "  "          Human  Body,  Fishes,  and  Reptiles. 

8th         "  "          Sounds  and  Weight. 

THIRD    TERM. 

1st  Fortnight. — Lessons  on  Color  and  Form. 

2d          "  "          Geography  and  Objects. 

3d          "  "          Human  Body  and  Mammals. 

4th         "  "          Size  and  Weight. 

5th         "  "          Sounds  and  Moral  Instruction. 

6th         "  "          Inventive  Drawing  and  Geography. 


Second  Year,  or  B  Class,  Primary. 

FIRST    TERM. 

1st  Month. — Lessons  on  Form  and  Inventive  Drawing. 
2c?       "  "          Mammals  and  Color. 

3d       "  "          Objects  and  Geography. 

4th      "  "          Sounds  and  Weight. 

SECOND    TERM. 

1st  Month. — Lessons  on  Size  and  Geography. 

2d       "  "          Mammals,  Insects,  and  Objects. 

3d       "  "          Form  and  Color. 

4th      "  "          Moral  Instruction  and  Drawing. 

THIRD    TERM. 

1st  Month. — Lessons  on  Objects,  Mammals,  and  Birds. 
Id       "  "          Elementary  Geography  and  Color. 

3d       u  "          Form,    alternating    with    Drawing    and 

Moral  Instruction. 


PROGRAMME  OF   STUDIES.  457 

Third  Year,  or  A  Class,  Primary. 

FIRST    TERM. 

1st  Month. — Lessons  on  Objects  and  Inventive  Drawing. 
'2d       "  "          Plants  and  Language. 

3d       "  Color  and  Elementary  Geography. 

4:th      "  "          Form  and  Moral  Instruction. 

SECOND    TERM. 

1st  Montli.—- Lessons  on  Geography  and  Inventive  Drawing. 

2d       "  "          Objects  and  Plants. 

3d       "  "          Color  and  Language. 

kth      "  •    "          Moral  Instruction  and  Form. 

THIRD    TERM. 

1st  Month. — Lessons  on  Geography  and  Language. 
2d       "  "          Objects  and  Animals-. 

3d       "  "          Form  and  Color. 

Exercises  in  Eeading,  Spelling,  and  Number  daily,  with  each 
class.  All  new  words  occurring  in  Second,  Third,  or  Fourth  Step 
lessons  to  be  spelled  by  the  class.  Any  portion  of  the  school  not 
employed  in  recitation,  should  be  occupied  with  their  slates  in 
printing  or  writing,  inventive  drawing,  making  out  tables,  or  re- 
producing lessons.  Some  definite  work  should  be  assigned  to  all 
the  divisions  of  the  school  for  every  hour  in  the  day. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  all  First  Step  lessons  belong  to  the 
first  year  of  the  child's  school-life,  the  Second  Step  to  the  second 
year,  &c.  This,  however,  can  only  be  considered  as  a  general 
direction. 

Teachers  may  find  it  necessary  not  unfrequently  to  vary  some- 
what this  arrangement,  to  adapt  it  to  the  varying  ages  and  capaci- 
ties of  children.  We  cannot  tog  carefully  study  the  character  of 
the  children  we  have  to  educate,  observing  the  effect  of  each  les- 
20 


4:58  PROGRAMME    OF    STUDIES. 

son  on  their  minds.  If  the  lesson  fails  to  interest  the  children, 
we  may  regard  it  as  a  very  sure  indication  that  the  lesson  is  either 
not  properly  presented,  or  not  adapted  to  them.  It  may  be  above, 
or  it  may  be  below  them.  The  skilful  teacher  will  carefully  ob- 
serve these  things,  and  change  the  character  of  her  lessons  to 
adapt  them  to  the  children  before  her. 


DAILY  PROGRAMME 


OSWEGO  PRIMAEY  SCHOOL, 


C  Class,  or  First  Year. 

A.  M. 

9  :  00  to    9  :  15. — Opening  Exercises. 

9  :  15  "     9  :  35. — Sub.  4,  Phonic  Reading. 

9  :  35  "     9  :  40. — Physical  Exercises. 

9  :  40  "  10 :  00. — General  Lesson. 

10  :  00  "  10  :  20.— Sub.  3,  Phonic  Reading. 

10  :  20  "  10  :  35.— Recess. 

10  :  35  "  10  :  55. — General  Lesson. 

10  :  55  "  11 :  00.— Marching. 

11 :  00  "  11 :  20.— Sub.  2,  Phonic  Reading. 
11:20  "  11  :  35.— Recess. 

11  :  35  "  11 :  50.— Sub.  1,  Number,  with  Objects. 

11  :  50  "  11 :  55. — Singing,  and  Dismissal  of  Youngest  Chil- 
dren. 

11  :  55  "  12  :  10.— Sub.  2,  Number,  with  Objects. 

12  : 10  "  12  :  30.— Sub.  1,  Phonic  Reading. 

12  :  30  to  1 :  30. — Intermission. 

P.  M. 

1 :  30  to    1  :  50. — General  Lesson. 

1 :  50  "     2  :    5.— Sub.  3,  Number,  with  Objects. 

2  :    5  "    2  :  10?— Physical  Exercises. 


460  PKOGKAMME   OF   STUDIES. 

2  :  10  to    2  :  25. — Sub.  4,  Number,  with  Objects. 
2  :  25  "     2  :  35. — Singing,  Boll-call,  and  Dismissal  of  Young- 
est Children. 
2  :  35  "     3  :  00. — Beading  from  Books. 

Children  not  engaged  in  Class  exercises,  are  occupied  with 
their  slates  in  printing,  or  drawing. 

B  Class,  or  Second  Year. 
A.  M. 

9  :  00  to    9  :  15. — Opening  Exercises. 

9  :  15  "     9  :  40.— Sub.  1,  Beading.     Sub.  2,  Making  Tables 

on  Slates. 

9  :  40  "     9  :  45. — Physical  Exercises. 
9  :  45  "  10  :    5.— Sub.  2,  Beading.     Sub.  1,  Making  Tables 

on  Slates. 

10  :    5  "  10  :  20. — Phonic  Spelling,  both  Divisions. 
10:20  "  10:35.— Becess. 
10  :  35  "  10  :  55. — Examine  Work  on  Slates. 

10  :  55  "  11 :  20.— General  Lesson. 

11  :  20  "  11  :  35.— Becess. 

11:35  «  12:00.— Sub.   2,  Number.      Sub.   1,  Print  Phonic 
Spelling. 

12  :  00  "  12  :    5. — Singing,  and  Dismissal  of  Sub.  2. 
12  :    5  "  12  :  30.— Sub.  1,  Phonic  Spelling  from  Slates. 

12  :  30  to  1  :  30. — Intermission. 

P.  M. 

1 :  30  to    1 :  50. — General  Lesson. 

1 :  50  "     2  :    5. — Inventive  Drawing. 

2  :    5  "     2  :  10. — Physical  Exercises. 

2:10"    2  :  25. — Sub.  2,  Phonic  Spelling.    Sub.  1,  Drawing, 

or  Printing. 
2  :  25  "     2  :  45. — Sub.    1,   Number.      Sub.    2,   Drawing,   or 

Printing. 
2  :  45  "     3  :  00. — Examination  of  Workmen  Slates. 


PROGRAMME   OF   STUDIES.  461 

A  Class,  or  Third  Year. 
A.  M. 

9  :  00  to    9  :  15. — Opening  Exercises. 

9  :  15  "  9  :  40.— Sub.  1,  Reading.  Sub.  2,  Preparing  Read- 
ing Lesson. 

9  :  40  "     9  :  45. — Physical  Exercises. 
9  :  45  "  10  :    5.— Sub.  2,  Reading.     Sub.  1,  Preparing  Tables 

on  Slates. 

10  :    5  "  10  :  20.— Sub.  1,  Phonic  Spelling.     Sub.  2,  Prepar- 
ing Tables  on  Slates. 
10:20  "  10:  35.— Recess. 

10  :  35  "  10  :  55.— Sub.    1,    Number.      Sub.   2,    Drawing  on 
Slates 

10  :  55  "  11  :  20. — General  Lesson. 

11  :  20  "  11  :  35.— Recess. 

11:35  "  11:55.— Sub.    2,    Number.     Sub.   1,    Drawing  on 

Slates. 
11:55  "  12  :  00.— Singing. 

12  :  00  "  12  :  30. — Examination  of  "Work  on  Slates. 

12  :  30  to  1  :  30. — Intermission. 

P.  M. 

1  :  30  to    1  :  55. — General  Lesson. 

1 :  55  "  2  :  10. — Tuesday  and  Thursday,  Inventive  Drawing. 
Monday,  "Wednesday,  and  Friday,  Read- 
ing Stories  to  the  Children. 

2  :  10  "     2  :  15.— Physical  Exercises. 

2:15"     2  :  35.— Sub.  2,  Phonic  Spelling.     Sub.  1,  Occupied 

with  Slates. 
2  :  35  "     3  :  00. — Examination  of  Slates. 


462  PROGRAMME   OF   STUDIES. 

The  following  Programme  will  show  more  minutely  the  work  in 
Object  Lessons.  It  is  taken  from  the  books  in  Model  School, 
being  a  Programme  for  the  Second  Month  of  the  First  Term, 
from  May  20th  to  June  9th. 

C  Class. 
BIRDS. 

EEDBREAST. — Parts  that  distinguish.  General  conversation ; 
cultivate  humane  feelings. 

PEACOCK. — How  distinguished.     Moral  lesson. 

LARK. — How  distinguished.  Number  of  parts — Two  eyes, 
two  wings,  one  body,  one  tail,  &c. 

PARROT. — How  distinguished.     Names  of  parts. 

STORK. — How  distinguished.     Position  of  parts. 

FALCON. — How  distinguished.  Principal  and  secondary  parts, 
or  parts  of  parts. 

DOVE. — Number  and  position  of  parts. 

NIGHTINGALE. — Names  of  parts  which  are  distinguished  as 
principal  and  secondary. 

PLACE. — First  Step. 

1.  Objects  placed  in  different  positions  by  the  teacher ;   chil- 
dren to  imitate  with  minute  accuracy. 

2.  As  1. 

3.  Objects  placed  in  different  positions ;  teaching  the  meaning 
of  the  term  to  express  the  position ;    as,  beside,  between,  under  ; 
and  the  children  imitate  and  apply  the  terms ;    then  place  the 
objects  as  directed,  without  a  pattern. 

4  and  5.  As  3. 

6.  Objects  placed ;  their  position  described,  and  represented 
on  the  blackboard. 

7  and  8.  As  4  and  5. 

SIZE. — First  Step. 

1.  Idea  of  large  and  small. 

2.  "       long  and  short.  m 


PROGRAMME   OF   STUDIES.  463 

3.  Idea  of  wide  and  narrow. 

4.  "       thick  and  thin. 

5.  "       deep  and  shallow. 

6.  "       deep  and  high. 

7  and  8.  Various  objects  described  with  reference  to  all  their 
qualities. 

B  Class. 

COLOR. 

1.  Yellow,  Eed,  Blue,  Orange,  Green,  Purple,  Citrine,  Olive, 
Kusset,  distinguished,  named,  and  matched. 

2.  Children  form   patterns  with  colored  cards.      First)  like 
those  made  by  the  teacher,  and  then  as  they  will.     They  are, 
however,  limited  as  to  the  colors  they  put  together,  in  order  to 
accustom  the  eye  to  harmonious  combination  of  colors  merely. 

Yellow  and  Purple. 
Eed  and  Green. 
Orange  and  Blue. 

3.  Orange  and  Purple. 

Green  and  Purple. 
Orange,  Green,  and  Purple. 

4.  Citrine  and  Bed. 

Citrine  and  Blue. 
Citrine,  Eed,  and  Blue. 

5.  Eusset  with  Blue. 

Eusset  with  Yellow. 

Eusset  with  Blue  and  Yellow. 

6.  Olive  with  Eed. 

Olive  with  Yellow. 

Olive  with  Eed  and  Yellow. 

7.  Black  with  Eed. 

Black  with  Yellow. 

Black  with  Eed  and  Yellow. 

8.  Black  with  Orange. 

Black  with  Green. 

Black  with  Orange  and  Green. 


PROGRAMME    OF    STUDIES. 

Though  the  exercises  in  Color  Patterning  are  not  exhausted, 
and  must  be  referred  to  again,  it  will  be  better  now,  for  the  sake 
of  variety,  to  proceed  to  the  Third  Step  in  Color. 

1.  Ke-calling  Color. — Lesson  on  Red. 

2.  "  Yellow. 

3.  "  Blue. 

4.  "  Green. 

5.  "  Orange  and  Purple. 

6.  •  "          Citrine,  Russet,  and  Olive. 

7.  General  Term. — Beauty  of  Color,  &c.     Color  of  Inanimate 
Nature. 

8.  General  Term. — Color  of  Animated  Nature. 

PLACE. —  Cardinal  Points* 

1.  Idea  of  East  and  West. 

2.  Idea  of  North  and  South. 

3.  Idea  of  Cardinal  Points. 

4.  Idea  of  term,  Cardinal  Points. 

5.  Exercises  on  the  term,  Cardinal  Points. 

6.  Exercises  on  all  the  Points. 

7  and  8.  Necessity  for  having  Four  Points. 

A  Class. 

BIRDS. 
1  and  2.  Eagle. 

3.  Condor. 

4.  Falcon. 

PLACE. 

Practice  in  drawing  to  Scale. 

Schoolroom,  adjoining  rooms,  school  building. 

Schoolroom  with  furniture,  &c. 

LANGUAGE. — Begin  the  Course. 
Forming  sentences  with  the  name  of  an  Object. 


PKOGKAMME   OF   STUDIES.  465 

Forming  sentences  with  a  word  expressing  Quality. 
Forming  sentences  with  some  part  of  the  verb  "  to  be." 

EXAMPLE. — The  Pencil  is  Sharp. 

Forming  sentences  in  which  different  qualities  are  ascribed  to 
the  same  object ;   as, 

Sugar  is  sweet. 
"  white. 
"  brittle,  &c. 

The  different  sentences  afterward  contracted  into  one. 
Forming  sentences  in  which  the  same  quality  is  ascribed  to 
different  objects ;  as, 

Glass  is  brittle. 

Chalk  is  brittle. 

Coal  is  brittle,  &c. 

The  different  sentences  contracted  into  one. 


THE   END. 


20* 


IN  PRESS. 

MODEL  LESSONS  ON  OBJECTS. 

BY 

E.  A.   SHELDON,, 

SUPERINTENDENT     OP    PUBLIC     SCHOOLS,    OSWEGO,     N.    Y.        AUTHOR    OP     "MANUAL    OP 
ELEMENTARY    INSTRUCTION,"    ETC. 


The  design  of  this  work  is  to  furnish  a  complete  reference-book  for  Teachers, 
in  giving  "  Object  Lessons."  It  contains  a  number  of  detailed  Lessons  in 
each  grade,  together  with  a  large  list  of  Objects,  with  the  names  of  such  qual- 
ities as  are  suitable  to  be  developed  in  each  Lesson,  and  such  information 
on  the  various  Objects  referred  to  as  will  be  of  assistance  to  the  Teacher.  It 
presents  a  complete  graduated  course  of  Developing  Exercises  and  Instruction 
in  Object  Lessons,  and  is  designed  as  a  companion  volume  to  "  Elementary 
Instruction,"  &c.,  &c. 

CHARLES    SCKIBNER, 

124  GRAND  STREET, 

NEW  YORK. 


Q-UYOT'S 

WALL  MAPS  FOR  SCHOOLS, 

BY 

PROP.  ARNOLD   GUYOT. 


The  large  series,  averaging 5x6  feet,  contains  the  following: 

1  Map  of  the  HEMISPHERES. 

1  "        "       "WORLD  (Mercator's  Projection). 

1  "        EUROPE. 

1  «        ASIA. 

1  "        AFRICA. 

I  "       NORTH  AMERICA. 

1  "       SOUTH  AMERICA. 

1  «        OCEANIA. 

1  "        CENTRAL  EUROPE. 

1  "  of  the  UNITED  STATES. 

1  "  of  the  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 

1  "        ANCIENT  GREECE. 

These  Maps  will  be  colored,  either  physically,  politically, 
or  physically  and  politically  together,  as  ordered,  and  hand- 
somely mounted  on  rollers. 

Map  will  be  sold  separately. 

CHARLES  SORIBNER, 

124:  GKAND  STREET,  New  York. 
GENTS  WANTED. 


GUYOT'S 

WALL  MAPS  FOR  SCHOOLS, 


BY 


PROF.  ARNOLD  G-UYOT. 


The  smaller  series,  averaging  3x4  feet,  contains  the  following : 

1  Map  of  the  HEMISPHEEES. 

1    «  EUEOPE. 

1  «  ASIA. 

1  "  AFEICA. 

1  "  NOETH  AMEEIOA. 

1  "  SOUTH  AMEEICA. 

1  "  OCEANIA. 

1  "  UNITED  STATES  (large). 

These  Maps  are  handsomely  colored,  and  each  set  in 
portfolio. 

will  be  sold  separately. 

CHARLES  SOEIBKER, 

124  GRAND  STREET,  New  York. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY, 
BERKELEY 


:S  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

Books  not  returned  on  time  are  subject  to  a  fine  of 
50c  per  volume  after  the  third  day  overdue,  increasing 
to  $1.00  per  volume  after  the  sixth  day.  Books  not  in 
demand  may  be  renewed  if  application  is  made  before 
expiration  of  loan  period. 


22  192S 


25m-7,'25 


i  D    U<47|    / 

GUYOT'S 

MAP  DRAWING  CARDS, 

DKAWN   BY   E.    SANDOZ,  UNDER   THE   DIRECTION    OF 
,    S3    CEKTTS    DPEH    SET. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  IvIBRARY 

UNITED  STATES  (double  size). 

These  "Map  Drawing  Cards"  are  printed  on  a  fine 
quality  of  paper,  and  present  merely  tlie.  latitudes  and 
longitudes. 

For  the  complete  set,  without  portfolios,  32  cents. 

For  any  single  Map  of  the  set,  50  cents  per  dozen. 

CHARLES  SORIBNER, 

GRAND  STREET,  New  York. 


•amples  sent  by  mail,  prepaid7  on  receipt  of  25  cents. 


' 


